


'* 



^LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.? 



5 ^g^/L// '.SM^ |i 

r # 

! UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. J 



HIGH SCHOOL 



GRAMMAR, 



OR, 

AN EXPOSITION 

OF THB 

GKAMMATICAL STEUCTUKE 

OF THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

/ 



fs. 



BY 



Wi^S. BARTON, A.M. 

AUTHOK OP "easy LESSONS In'eVgLISH GRAMMAR," "INTERMEDIATE GRAMMAR,' 
" PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION," ETa, BTO., 




"Truth and Simplicity arh Twin Sisters." 



B O S T O jST : ^-"^ °' ^ash^ 

aOITLI) AND LINCOLN. 

MO^^TGOMERT, ALA.: TEACHERS' EXCHANGE, W. S. BARTON. NEW 

ORLEANS : J. C. MORGAN & CO. SAVANNAH, GA. : J. M COOPER & CO. 

CHARLESTON, 8. C : MCCARTER & CO. NASHVILLE, TENN. : 

GRAVES, MARKS & CO. CINCINNATI, O. : GEORGE 8. 

BLANCH ARD. NEW YORK : SHELDON & CO. 

1862. 







Entered, according to Act of Gongreas, in the year 1^9, 

By W. S. barton. 

In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of Aiabani*. 



Steeeottped by 

T. B. Smith & Son, 

82 & 84 Beekman Street. 



PREFACE. 



The favorable reception extended to the author's "Inter- 
mediate Grammar," and the many solicitations of distinguished 
teachers and professors have induced him to present it in a more 
enlarged and complete form. His object has been to furnish 
students in the higher institutions of learning, with a general 
view of the leading features of English Philology, and to place 
in their hands a work that may prove not only a useful auxil- 
iary throughout their Academic and Collegiate course, but a 
hand-book of reference for after life. 

Special attention has also been given to the wants of teach- 
ers. In the ordinary routine of instruction even in " common 
schools," questions arise in their own minds, or are proposed 
by their pupils in regard to idiomatic forms, or some peculiarity 
of structure, which have scarcely been noticed, or are entirely 
passed over in the text-book of the class. Deficiencies of this 
kind have been anticipated, and such assistance afforded as may 
the more thoroughly qualify them*for the successful discharge 
of the important duty in which they are engaged. 



IV PREFACE. 

In the preparation of this work, the author, in addition to his 
own practical investigations, has freely consulted the older gram- 
marians, such as Wallis, Harris, Lowth, Greenwood, &c., &c., 
as well as the best of the modern, such as Murray, Crombie, 
Latham, Webster, Brown, &c., &c. He would also acknowledge 
his indebtedness to Bopp, Becker, Ktihner, and the valuable 
grammar of Andrews and Stoddard, recently revised by E. A. 
Andrews, for many hints in regard to the philosophy and method 
of language. In a word, he has availed himself of all the ma- 
terials within his reach, when they aided in the development 
of his plans. 



GRAMMAR. 



§ 1. Grammar is the science of Language. 

§ 2. It is divided into two parts^ Theoretical 
and Practical. 

§ 3. Theoretical Grammar treats of the prin- 
ciples common to all languages. Practical Grammar 
treats of the principles of a particular language. 

§ 4. Language is a medium for the communica- 
tion of thought. It is divided into Spoken and 
Written. 

§ 5. Spoken language is the utterance of sig- 
nificant sounds to express thought. Written lan- 
guage is a system of characters or letters to repre- 
sent spoken language. 

Remark. — In regard to tho origin of language there has been much 
diversitj of opinion. One class maintained that it was the pure gifl of 
God, the second that it was the invention of man, and others again that it 
was neither the pure gifl of God, nor the invention of man, but the result 
of his organization. 

Cicero, in alluding to the human race in primeval ages, says : *' There 
was a time when men wandered everywhere through the fields after the 
manner of beasts, and supported life by eating the food of beasts." Dio- 
dorua, Lucretius, Horace, Pliny, Juvenal, and other ancient writers, favored 



6 ©RAMMAR. 

the same opinioD, and supposed that it was only after a long and gradua. 
improvement, that men attained their present enlightened state. 

Whether language was the pure gift of God, conveyed in vocal sounds 
to the listening ear, as from the teacher to the pupil, or the development 
of some pre-existing type in man, are questions that have never been 
satisfactorily settled. The opinion expressed by Baron Humboldt, is con- 
sistent and certainly not far from the truth; " Speech must be regarded as 
naturally inherent in man, for it is altogether inexplicable as a work of 
his understanding in its simple consciousness. "We are none the better for 
allowing thousands and thousands of years for the invention of language, 
unless its type already existed in the human understanding. Man is only 
man by the means' of speech ; but in order to invent speech he must be 
already maru" 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 6. English Grammar teaches the principles 
of the English Language. 
These relate : 

1. To its Written Characters ; 

2. To its Pronunciation ; 

3. To til e Classification and Derivation of its Words ; 

4. To the Construction of Sentences ; 

5. To Versification. 

Remark. — The grammar of a particular language, is a system of general 
principles derived from the natural distinction of words, and particular 
rules deduced from the customary forms of speech in the nation using that 
language. These usages are mostly arbitrary, or of accidental origin, but 
when they become common, they are to be considered as established, and 
received as rules of highest authority. 

§ 7. The first part is called Orthography; the 
second. Orthoepy; the third, Etymology; the 
fourth, Syntax ; and the fifth, Prosody. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§ 8. Orthography treats of the letters and other 
characters of a language, and the proper method 
of spelling words. 



8 LETTERS. 

LETTERS. 

§ 9. A Letter is a character used to represent an articulate 
sound, 

§ 10. An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice 
formed by the organs of speech. 

§ 11. The sound of a letter is commonly called its power. 
When any letter or word is not sounded, it is said to be silent 
or mute. 

§ 12. There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet, 
A knowledge of the alphabet consists in an acquaintance with 
the forms, names, classes, and powers of the letters. 

§ 13. The letters of the alphabet are of various shapes and 
sizes, but are always the same, because their essential proper- 
ties do not change. Their names, classes, and powers are 
mostly permanent. 

The following are some of the different styles of letters : 

1. The Roman : A, a ; B, b ; C, c ; D, d ; E, e ; F, f ; G, g ; 
H, h ; I, i ; J, j ; K, k ; L, 1 ; M, m ; N, n ; 0, o ; P, p ; 
Q, q; R, r; S, s; T, t; U, u; V, v; W, w; X, x; Y, y; 
Z, z. 

a 

2. The Italic : ^, a ; B,h; C, c ; D, d : E, e ; F, f ; 
O, g ; H, h ; I, i ; J, j ; K, k ; L, I ; M, m; I^, n ; 
0, o; P, p ; Q, q; R, r ; S, s ; T, t ; U, u; V, v ; 
W, w ; X, X ; Y, y ; Z, z, 

3. The Script: ©^ a; M, /; ^, c -, ^, </; 6\ e; i^/; 

f,r> ^. '^/ '^^ 'V /, /; -^4 ^; ^, <• ^/^, -; 
^, «; ^, ^; ^\ /; ^, ?; ^, s- ^, s- <^, '; 

^, «; ^, .; 7^, <.; X, .; f, y; >', ^. 



OBSERVATIONS. 9 

4. The Old English : 21, a; J3, b; dl, c ; T3, h; Qt, c ; 
f.i; ©, g; i?. I); 3. i; 3, ]; li. k; £, 1; i«, m; 
53', n; ®, o; p, p; (Ei, q; E, t; S, s; aC, t; U, u; 
t), o; to, w; X, ^; D, B; 2, ^ 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — ^The inquiry concerning the origin of letters has given rise to 
a variety of opinions, and many of them vague and unsatisfactory ; for on this 
point the learned are by no means agreed. Some writers have attributed their 
invention to different people. Thoth, or Mercury, is said to have invented 
and taught the Egyptians how to use them. Others again give the honor 
of the invention to the Assyrians, Phoenicians, &c., &c. Some think they 
were perfectly known before the confusion of tongues, and imagine them 
to have been in common use in the antediluvian world, and that Noah 
and his family brought them into the new world, in which they have been 
continued through a great variety of successive changes, until the present 
time. Some attribute the invention to Moses, others to Abraham, others 
to Abel, and some to Adam. The Jewish rabbis say, "The Almighty 
formed them on the evening of the first Sabbath," and Pliuy seems to 
have thought them eternal. These different opinions seem to show the 
uncertainty of the subject; there can be no limit to conjecture, when all 
direct evidence is wanting. That there were various symbols and figures 
used in all ages of the world to represent the objects of sense, even before 
a regular written language was necessary, may be readily believed ; but 
we have no certain account of the existence or use of alphabetical charac- 
ters previous to the day of Moses, nor of any thing written in such charac- 
ters prior to the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, 2512 years from the 
foundation of the world, and 856 after the universal deluge. After the 
dispersion of mankind in the time of Peleg, writing became necessary, not 
only because of this dispersion, but because the life of man was so much 
abridged ; consequently traditions must become less certain, as the facts 
had to be related to a multitude of persons ; hence alphabetical characters 
became necessary, because without them the records of the world mast 
Boon have been obliterated from the swiftly succeeding generations of 
men. There is no positive evidence that there was any writing before 
the declaration of the law on Mount Sinai ; and then tno Almighty is said 
X) have written the Decalogue with his own finger. 

1* 



10 POWER OE LETTERS. 

The Greek alphabet had its origin from the Phoenician. The Romans 
derived the most of their capitals from the Greeks, but the small letters, 
if they had any, were made by themselves. The Italic letters were in- 
vented towards the close of the fifteenth century. The Saxon alphabet 
was mostly Roman, nearly all their letters belonging to that class. Un- 
der "William the Conqueror this was superseded by the Old English, which 
in its turn gave place to the Roman. 

Remark 2. — A letter consists not only in figure or power, but in their 
union. The name is necessary to distinguish it, and the power to deter- 
mine the class to which it belongs. 

Remark 3. — The marks used for punctuation are not letters — they in- 
dicate silence, not sound. Numerals do not come under the class of let- 
ters, as they do not represent sounds, but entire words. 



POWERS OF LETTERS. 

§ 14. In the analysis of words it is necessary to distinguish 
between the name and power of letters. 

§ 15. The elementary powers or sounds of the English 
language are about forty. They are divided into Vocals, Sub- 
vocals, and Aspirates, 

§ 16. A Vocal consists of pure voice only; e. g., A^ e, o. 

§ 17. A Subvocal consists of the voice and breath united ; 
e. g., B, d, g. 

§ 18. Aspirates consist of pure breath only; e. g., F^ A, h, 

§ 19. Vocals are subdivided into long and 8liort, 

§ 20. A long sound is one that can be protracted at pleas- 
ure ; e. g., May ay ; \>ee ee, 

§ 21. A short sound is one formed by the same position of 
the organs, but uttered with an explosive effort; e. g., Hat, 
p^n, pin. 



ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 



11 



A TABLE OF THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS 
IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



VOCALS. 


SUBVOCALS. 


ASPIRATES. 


A. 


ale, able. 


B. 


6ut, 


or6. 


F. 


fix. 




A, 


art. 


D. 


do, 


ded. 


H. 


/iat. 


- 


A. 


all. 


G. 


gone, 


dog. 


K. 


^eep, 


booAr. 


A. 


at. 


J. 


jadge. 




P. 


^en, 


top. 


E. 


me. 


L. 


lee. 




S. 


sun. 




E. 


met. 


M. 


ma,u. 




T. 


fop, 


bu^ 


I. 


ire. 


N. 


no. 




Th. 


fai^A. 




I. 


in. 


Ng. 


ring. 




Sh. 


sAow. 




0. 


old. 


R. 


rope, 


far. 


Ch. 


cAide. 




0. 


more, ooze. 


Th. 


th\a. 




Wh. 


wTiqu. 




0. 


odd. 


V. 


V&Xi. 










U. 


twne, use. 


VV. 


we. 










U. 


Mp. 


Y. 


yes. 











u. 


foil. 


Z. 


2inc. 










Ou. 


tllOM, 


Z. 


a2ure. 











Remark. — The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w 
and y)y and if from the name of the consonant we take away the vowel 
sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant {w and y 
excepted). 



§ 22. Certain letters in the Englisb alphabet have the same 
power as others ; such are styled Equivalents, Of the sub- 
vocals and aspirates eight pairs are Correlatives. 



12 



LETTERS. — DIVISION OE CONSONANTS. 



TABLE OF EQUIYALENTS AND CORBELATIYES. 



EQUIVALENTS. 


CORRELATIVES. 






Sub vocals. Aspirates. 


W - u 


cow, mew. 


V 


vow. F /ame. 


Y ~ i 


tyrant. 


G 


(/one. K ^eep. 


C (hard) - k 


cat. 


B 


5at. P ^en. 


Q = k 


li^'uor. 


Z 


zinc. S sin. 


C (soft) — s 


cent. 


D 


do. T fop. 


G (soft) j 


^in. 


Th 


this. Th thick. 


X = ks 


&x. 


Z 


azure. Sh show. 






J 


jndge. Ch cAild. 



DIVISION OF LETTERS. 

§ 23. Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

§ 24, A Vowel represents a sound perfect without the aid 
of any other sound. 

§ 25, A Consonant represents a sound made in conjunction 
with a vowel sound. 

§ 2G. The Vowels are a, c, e, o, u, and w and y when not 
before a vowel sounded in the same syllable. 

§ 27. The Consonants are h, c, d, /, ^, A, j, Tc, Z, m, n, jp, g, 
r, 5, ^, V, ar, 0, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the same 
syllable. 



CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 

§ 28. Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semivowels. 

Remark. — The Semivowels have an imperfect sound by themselves, 
but the Mutes cannot be sounded alone. 

§ 29. Tlie Mutes are 5, />, c?, t, h, v, and c and g bard. 



DIPHTHONGS. — TRIPHTHONGS. 18 

Remark. — C is hard when it has the sound of h in cat^ and soft when 
it is sounded as s in city. G is hard when it is sounded as g in gun, and 
soft when as in gentle, 

§ 30. The Semivowels are /, A, /, m, n^ r, 5, v, 0, and c and 
g soft. 

§ 31. Xis a double consonant, and is equivalent to Jcs. 

§ 32. Four of the semivowels, Z, m, n, and r, are called 
liquids on account of their smooth flowing sound. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

§ 33. Two vowels in immediate succession in tlie same syl- 
lable form a Diphthong ; e, g., Ou in found. 

§ 34. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels 
are sounded ; e. g., Oi in oil. 

§ 35. An Improper Diphtliong is one in which only one of 
Jie vowels is sounded ; e. g., ^a in heat, 

O B S E Pv Y A T I N S . 

l^EMAKK 1. — The Diphthongs in EngUsh are twenty-nine: aa, ae, ai\ 
iiOj au, aw, ay, -ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey, — ia, ie, (a) to, {iu, iw, iy) — oa, oe, 
01, 00, ou, ow, oy, — ua, ue, ui, uo, {uu, uw) uy. Ten of these are proper or 
improper, being variously sounded : — ay, — ie, oi, ou, ow, — ua, ue, ui, uo, uy. 

Ekmark 2. — The Proper Diphthongs are tiiirteen: ay, — ia, ie, io, — oi^ 
on, oy, ow, — ua, ue, ui, uo, uy. 

V.EY.ARK ?>. — The Improper Diphthongs are twenty-six: aa, ae, ai, ao, 
'.H, ci'j, aw, — ea, ee, ei, to, ew, ew, ey, — ie, — oa, oe, oi, 00, ou, ow, — ua, ue, 

a', uj, uy. 

TRIPHTHONGS. 

§ 3G. Three vowels. in the same syllable in immediate suc- 
cession form a Triphthong ; e. g., I^au in heautij. 



14 COMBINATIONS. — SYLLABLES. 

§ 37. A Proper Triphthong is one in which all the vowels 
are sounded ; e. g., Uoy in buoy, 

§ 38. An Improper Triphthong is one in which all the 
vowels are not sounded ; e. g., Eau in beauty. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — The only Proper Triphthong in English is uoy^ as in 
huoy^ buoyant, buoyancy ; unless uoi in quoit may be coniidered a parallel. 

Remark 2. — The Improper Triphthongs are sixteen : awe, aye, — eau^ 
eoUj ewCf eye, — ieu, iou, — oeu, owe, — uai, uaw, uay, uea, uee, 

COMBINATIONS. 

§ 39. A Combination is the union of a consonant and 
vowel in one sound ; e. g., Ci in social, 

§ 40. The Combinations are ee^ e^, si, ti, and zi, when they 
sound like cA, sli, or zh, 

DOUBLE CONSONANTS. 

§ 41. A Double Consonant is the union of two consonants 
in one sound ; e. g., Ch in church, 

§ 42. The Double Consonants are cA, g\ ph, sh, t\ uh^ 
and ng, Nk is equivalent to ngh ; e. g., Think, thank, 

APHTHONGS. 

§ 43. An Aphthong is a letter or union of letters not 
sounded; e. g., Ugh in though, 

SYLLABLES. 

§ 44. A Syllable is a letter or combination of letters ut- 
tered together ; e. g., A, a-far^ con-nect-ed. 



WORDS. ACCENT. 15 

Remark. — Every word contains as many syllables as it has distinct 
Bounds; e. g., A-e-ri-al, gram-ma-ri-an, 

§ 45. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; e. g., 
Boijy mail, house, 

§ 46. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable ; e. g., 
A-far, con-nect, 

§ 47. A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable ; e. g., 
Con-nect-ed^ con'SO-nant. 

§ 48. A word of more tlian three syllables is called a Poly- 
syllable ; e. g., JJn-con-nect-ed-ly. 

WORDS. 

§ 49. Words are articulate sounds used by common con- 
sent as the signs of our ideas. In respect to origin, they are 
either Primitive, Derivative, Simple, or Compound. 

§ 50. A Primitive Word is one that is not derived from 
any other word ; e. g., Boston^ man^ good, 

§ 51. A Derivative Word is one derived from some other 
word ; e. g., JBostonian, manful^ goodness, 

§ 52. A Simple Word is one not compounded with any 
other word ; e. g.. Horse, man, 

§ 53. A Compound Word is one compounded of two or 
more words ; e. g., Horse-man, 

ACCENT. 

§ 54. Accent is a stress of voice placed upon a particular 
syllable to distinguish it from others. Every word of more 
than one syllable, has one of its syllables accented. 

§ 55. Accent is of two kinds : Primary and Secondary, 
% oQ, The Primary accent is a full stress of the voice ; e. g., 
Al'-sOy de-ny' , 



16 WORDS. — DERIVATION. — PREFIXES. 

§ 57. The Secondary accent is a weaker stress of the voice; 
e. g., 0'^'Ver-see\ lu'mi-na"ry. 

OBSERYATIONS. 

Remark 1. — ^If the full accent falls on a vowel, the sound is prolonged; 
e. g., Yo'-cal. T\^hen it falls on a consonant the preceding vowel is 
shortened; e. g., Hah' -it 

REiiARK 2. — In separating a word into its syllables, care should bo 
taken to divide it as it is pronounced. 

Remark 3. — In writing a syllable, never divide it at the end of a line. 

DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

§ 58. Derivation is forming words from their roots. This 
is done by the aid of prefixes and suffixes. 

Remark. — The Anglo-Saxon is the basis of the English language. It 
contains, however, many v^ords from other languages. 

§ 59. The Root is the essential part of a word. A prefix is 
a part of the derivation before the root. 

Remark. — A prefix often loses a letter, or changes it for the sake of 

euphony. 

§ 60. Prefixes are mostly of Saxon, Latin, and Greek 
origin. 

Remark. — The roots to which they are prefixed are not always used 
as distinct words in the English language ; the meaning of such may be 
determined by applying different prefixes. Thus in mpel, propel, (dispel, 
eojpel, it is easily seen that the word ^el means to drive. 

PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. 

All. Most ; wholly ; in the highest degree. 

After. Later ; latter ; following. 

Be. Nearness ; adding intensity. 

By. Near; aside. 



WORDS. — PREFIXES. 



17 



Fore. 
Out. 
Over. 
Up. 

Under. 
With. 



Before ; in front. 
Beyond ; excess. 
Excess ; above. 
Kisinof! sustaininor. 
Below ; beneath. 
Opposing; retaining. 



PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN. 

A, ab, abs. From ; away from. 

Ad, ac, af, ag, al, an, ) 

r To ; towards ; closeness or union* 
ap, ar, as, at. ) 



Ambi. 






Both. 


Amb, amphi. 






Around, or to. 


Ante. 






Before. 


Ant, anti. 






Opposite; against. 


Bene. 






Good, or well. 


Bi, bis. 






Two. 


Cis. 






On this side. 


, Center, centi, 


cent. 




A hundred. 


Contra, contro, countei 


\ Against, opposition to. 


Con, CO, cog, 
cor. 


com, 


col. 


f With ; joined with, or together. 


Circum. 






Around, about. 


De. 


, 




From ; depriving of; down. 


Di, dis, dif. 






Separating; out of ; from. 


Duo, du. 






Two, double. 


E, ex, ef, ec. 






Out, out of, from, beyond. 


En, em. 






In, or upon. 


Equi. 






Equal. 


Extra. 






Beyond ; more than ; excess. 


In, im, ig, il, 


ar. 




( Not ; with adj, and adv, 
\ In ; into ; on : with verbs. 



18 



WORDS. — PKKPIXBS. 



Inter. 




Between; among. 




Intro. 




Within; into; unto. 




Infra. 




Under; below. 




Juris. 




Legal ; lawful ; right. 




Jiixta. 




Near by ; nearness. 




Mis. 




"Wrong; erroneous. 




Male, mal. 




Ill, evil, bad. 




Multi. 




Many. 




Manu. 




A hand. 




Non, no, un. 




j Not ; with adj, and adv. 
( Undoing ; with verbs. 




Noct, 




Night. 




Ob, DC, of, op, 


• 


( In front ; against ; toward ; 
( on. 


in, or 


Omni, panto, 


pan. 


All. 




PJeni. 




Full. 




Preter. 




Beyond ; past ; more than. 




Post. 




After. 




Pro. 




Before ; forward ; to surpass. 




Per. 




Through; by; very; over. 




Primo, prim. 




First; original. 




Quad, tetra. 




Four. 




Pve. 




Again, back, return. 




Retro. 




Backward, back. 




Se. 




Separation, withdrawal. 




Super, supra. 


sur. 


Over and above ; beyond. 




Sex. 




Six. 




Soli, moni. 




One; alone. 




Semi, demi, liemi. 


Half. 




Sub, subter, sul, 
sug, sup, sus. 


' ]r Under, below, after. 




Sine. 




Without. 





WORDS. — PBEFIXBS. 



19 



Trans, ultra. 


Across, beyond, change. 


Tri. 


Three.' 


Uni. 


One. 


PREFIXES 


OF GREEK ORIGIN, 


A. 


Privation, destitute of, without. 


Ana. 


Again, against, back. 


Arch (arche). 


Chief; beginning. 


Astro (astron). 


A star. 


Auto (autos). 


One's self. 


Apo, apli. 


From. 


Aristo (aristos). 


The best, viz,y noble, or nobles. 


Bio (bios). 


Life. 


Biblio (biblion). 


A book. 


Cata. 


Against; down. 


Choro (clioros). 


A place, or country. 


Chiro (clieir). 


A hand. 


CLrono (chronos). 


Time. 


Cosmo (cosmos). 


The world. 


Dia. 


Through. 


Dys. 


Bad; diflScult. 


Deca, dec (deka). 


Ten. 


Eu. 


Good ; well ; praise. 


Epi. 


In ; on ; upon. 


Entomo (entoma). 


An insect. 


Geo (ge). 


The earth. 


Homo (homos). 


Like; similar. 


Hetero (heteros). 


Unlike; dissimilar. 


Hepta (Latin septem). 


Seven. 


Helio (helios). 


The sun. 


Hydro (hudor). 


Water. 


Hyper (huper). 


Over, excess, beyond. 



20 



WORDS. — SUFFIXES. 



Hypo (Inipo). 

Iclitliys (ichtlius), 

Lexico (lexikon). 

Litlio (iithos). 

Meta. 

Mytlio (muthos). 

Miso ; mis (misos). 

Osteo (osteon). 

Ortho (orthos). 

Ornitho (ornitbos). 

Octo, octa, oct (okto). 

Para. 

Proto (protos). 

Penta (peiite). 

Physico, pliysis (phusis). 

Pyro (pur). 

Poly (polas). 

Philo, pliil (pliilos). 

Peri. 

Syn, syl, sym, sy (sun). 

Steno (stenos). 

Stereo (stereos). 

Topo (topos). 

Theo (theos). 

Typo (tupos). 

Zoo (zoon). 



Under. 

A fish. 

A dictionary, 

A stone. 

Change, beyond, 

A fable. 

Hatred. 

A bone. 

Right; correct. 

A bird ; a fowl. 

Eight. 

Contraiy, beyond. 

First, chief. 

Five. 

Nature; natural. 

Fire. 

Many. 

Friend ; love, lover. 

Around; near. 

With ; together with. 

Narrow ; brief; short. 

Solid ; firm. 

A place. 

God. 

Type. 

An animal ; a beast. 



SUFFIXES. 

§ 61. A Suffix is the part of a derivative after the root. 
In adding suffixes, the final letter of the root is often doubled^ 
d7'oj)ped^ or changed. Such changes are made according to the 
following rules : 



WORDS. — SUFFIXES. 21 

Rule I. Verbs of one syllable, ending with a single con- 
sonant preceded by a single vowel, and verbs of more than one 
syllable ending in the same manner, and accented on the last 
syllable, double the final consonant on receiving an additional 
syllable ; e, g., Regret, regretUd ; dig, digging. 

Remark:. — Most words ending in /, though not accented on the syl- 
lable, double the I on receiving an additional syllable; e. g., Travel, 
travelled; model, modelled. 

Rule IL In words ending in y, preceded by a single con- 
sonant, the y is changed into i before an additional syllable ; 
e. g.. Merry, merrier ; pity, pitied. 

Exceptions. — Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of i; 
e. g-, Marry, marrying. Words in ie drop e and take y ; e. g., Die, 
dying To prevent ambiguity, the verb to dye, and some others, retain e 
before ing. 

Rule III. Words ending in silent e before an additional 
syllable beginning with a vowel, generally omit the e ; e, g., 
Force, forcible ; rave, raving. 

Exception 1. — "Words ending in a or ge retain the a before ahle^ oiis ; 
e. g., Peace, peaceable; outrage, ouirageoics. 

Exception 2. — ^Words ending in oe retain the final e; e. g., Shoe, 
shoeing. 

Exception 3. — ^Words ending in ee drop the final e on receiving an 
additional syllable beginning with e ; e. g., See, seesi ; agree, agreed. 

Rule IV. Double I generally becomes single before an ad- 
ditional consonant ; e. g., Skill, skilful. 

Remark. — Words in any other double letter preserve it double before 
the terminations ful, ly, ness^ less. 

Rule V. Compound words formed by prefixing a word or 
syllable to a monosyllable ending in all, retain the II ; e. g., 
Befall, bethrall. 

Remark. — Withal, therewithaly and wherewithal are exceptions to this 
rule. 



22 



WORDS. — SYNOPSIS OF SUFFIXES. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE SUFFIXES. 

That may be ; can be ; capable of 
beiiiQ-. 

The property, or quality capable of be- 
ing; the state, or susceptibility of 
being. 

The person who, or thing which. 

The act of; the state; the state of 



Able, ible. 

Ability, ibility. 
Ableness, ibleness. 



Ant, ent. 

Ance, ancy, ion, ence, 
ency, ment.^ 



Ac, ic, al, ary, 

Dom, ric. 

En. 

Ful, ose. 

Hood, ship. 

Ize, fy, fit, fie, ferous. 

Ity, cy. 

Ish, ly. 

Ive. 

Ics, ism. 

He. 

Less. 

Ness. 

Ous. 

Ory. 

Ast, er, ess, ee, err, 

ian, ist, ite, ix, or 

ress, san, zen. 
Some. 
Ar, ard, ado, ster, oso, 

ati. 
Kin, ct, ling, let, ulc. 



\ 



being, or the thing. 
Pertaining to ; belonging to ; relating 

to ; consisting of. 
Jurisdiction ; possession. 
Made of; consisting of. 
Full of; abounding with. 
State, office, quality. 
To make or become. 
The state of being ; quality ; power. 
Like ; similar to ; somewhat. 
Tending to ; relating to ; power of. 
The science; art of ; doctrine; state. 
Pertaining to ; easily. 
Without ; destitute of. 
The abstract quality or state. 
Containing ; partaking of ; full of. 
Containing ; tending to ; place. 

Commonly imply the person or thing. 

Possessing a degree of; causing. 
Sometimes denote a person. 
Little or young. 



WORDS. — GRAMMATICAL SUFFIXES. 23 

GRAMMATICAL SUFFIXES. 

S, es. More than one ; e. g., Boy s^ foxes, 

Er, More ; c. g., Wiser, 

Est. Most ; e. g., Wisest, 

S, es. Does ; e. g., Kills, 

Est. Dost ; e. g., Wishest. 

Ed. Did ; e. g., KillecL 

Ing. Continuing to ; e. g., Acting, 

Remarks. — The prefixes and suffixes of our language are less than 
200, and nearly uniform in their signification. These being thoroughly 
learned, our vocabulary, consisting of over 100,000 words, is compressed 
within the limits of about 10,000 roots or primitives. These include the 
Saxon, Gothic, Celtic, Latin, Greek, and other radicals of the language. 
More than 30.000 English words derived from Latin and Greek are 
formed or built up, by means of these prefixes and sufl&xes, from less 
than 2000 radical words; 13,000 of them from about 200; and 2,400 
from only 12 roots. The root facio (to make or do) enters into more than 
500 English words, upon which it impresses literally its own signification. 
These facts, and the ease with which the prefixes and suffixes can be mas- 
tered, are sufficient to induce the pupil to commit them thoroughly. This 
being done, and knowing that tract, from the Latin traho^ means to draw, 
the pupil at once knows the meaning of 210, as they occur, formed from 
this root. Thus abstract, to draw from ; extract, to draw out ; attract, to 
draw to; contract, to draw together; retract, to draw back; subtract, to 
draw under or from j distract^ to draw asunder, &c., &c. 

CAPITALS. 

§ 62. Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both 
in writing and printing. At present only the following words 
begin with capitals. 

1. — The first word of every distinct sentence ; e. g., " False- 
hood is a most odious viceP 



24 CAPITALS. — ORTHOEPY. 

2. — ^Proper names and titles of honor or ofSce should begin 
with a capital ; e. g., 3£iss J. W, Nixon ; Gen, G. W. Gunn ; 
Doct. F. M, Peterson, 

3. — Adjectives derived from proper names ; e. g., American; 
Washing Ionian, 

4. — All names of Deity ; e. g., God ; Jehovah ; the AU 
mighty ; the Supreme, 

5, — ^The name of an object personified, when it conveys an 
idea strictly individual ; e, g., " Come, gentle Spring^ 

6. — The first word of every line of poetry should begin with 
a capital ; e. g., 

" A mother is a mother still, 
The holiest thing alive." — Coleridge, 

*1, — The first word of a direct quotation, when it forms a 
complete sentence ; e. g., Virgil says, " Labor conquers all 
things^ 

8. — The pronoun / and exclamation ; e. g., " / wish to 
go ;" " 0, blissful days !" 

9. — Every noun and principal word in the title of books; 
e. g., " Pope's Essay on ManV 

10. — Other principal words, when they are of particular im- 
portance, may begin with capitals. 

ORTHOEPY. 

§ 63. Orthoepy treats of the right pronuncia- 
tion of words. 

Remark. — Pronunciation is best taught by means of a good spelling- 
book where the words are arranged according to their analogies, and di- 
vided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies, Dictionaries, and 
Glossaries are serviceable only to the more advai:ced. Walker's Rules 
for Pronunciation are probably the clearest and best guide before the 



QUESTIONS. 25 

public. Mulky's System may be consulted in connection with Walker 
Other writers might be named, but of all, Walker is the best. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Grammar ? 

IIow is it div^ided ? 

AVhat is Practical Grammar? Theoretical? 

"What is Lanofiiaixe ? IIow divided ? 

What is spoken language ? Written ? 

What does Eno-Hsh Grammar teach ? 

To what do they relate ? 

What is the First Part called ? 

The Second ? The Third ? Fourth ? Fifth ? 

AVhat does Orthography treat of? 

AVhat is a letter ? an articulate sound ? 

What is the sound of a letter called ? 
Wlien a letter is not sounded, what is it called? 
IIow many letters in the Alphabet ? 
What is said of the shapes and sizes ? 
Mention some of the different styles. 
What is necessary in the analysis of words ? 
How many elementary sounds or powers ? 
IIow are they divided ? 
AYhat is a Vocal ? Subvocal ? Aspirate ? 
IIow are Vocals subdivided ? 
What is a Ions: sound ? Short ? 
How are letters divided ? 
What docs a Vowel represent ? 
A Consonant ? 

IIuw are the Consonants divided ? 
What is a Mute? Ser^ivcvro!? ^ 

What are the Liquids ? * 

2 



26 ETYMOLOGY. — FORM OF WORDS. 

What is a Diphthong ? 

A Pioper Diphthong ? In^roper ? 

What is a Triphthong ? Proper ? Improper ? 

What is a Combination ? 

What are they ? 

What is a Double- Consonant ? Aphthong ? 

Wliat is a Syllable ? 

What are words of one Syllable called ? 

Two Syllables ? Three ? More than three ? 

What are Words ? 

How divided ? What is a Primitive word ? 

Derivative ? Simple ? Compound ? 

What is Accent ? 

How many kinds are there ? 

Explain the Primary. Secondary. 

What is meant by Derivation of Words ? 

What is the Root ? Prefix ? 

W^hat is said of their origin ? 

What is Ptule L ? H.? &c. 

What is said of the use of Capitals ? 

What does Orthoepy treat of i 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 64. Etymology treats of the different classes 
of words, and their various modifications. 

FORM OF WORDS. 

§ 65. In respect to Ibnn, words are either Do- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 



6LASSIFICATI0N OF wouds. 27 

§ GG. A Declinable word is one that undergoes 
certain changes of form or termination to express 
its various relations; e. g., Man^ men; love^ loves^ 
loved. 

§ 67. An Indeclinable word undergoes no 
changes of form. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

§ 68. Words are divided according to their 
use, into eight different classes; viz.: Noun, Verb, 
Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, Conjunction, and 
Exclamation. 

Remark. — Words are dividod naturally into two classes ; Primary and 
Secondary. Primary words consist of such as are essential to language, 
on which others depend as auxiliaries. This class includes the Noun and 
Verb. Secondary words are such as are dependent on others in construe 
lion. Tills class includes Adjectives, Pronouns, Adverbs, Prepositions, 
and Conjunctions. Exclamations have no grammatical relation to othei 
words. 

§ 69. From words are formed Propositions ; 
e.g., " Girls sing ;'' "-hoys 'playT 

Remark. — Any combination of words expressing an assertion, question, 
command, &c., — or in general, any combination that expresses complete 
sense is called a proposition. 

§ 70. In the construction of propositions, the 
Noun and Verb are indispensable. All other words, 
with the exception of the Exclamation, are either 
appendages or connectives. 

§ 71. Every proposition, however simple, con- 
sists of two parts ; the Subject, or thing spoken 



28 EXERCISES. 

of; and the Predicate, or that which is affirmed of 
the subject; e. g., ''John reads /' " William re- 
cited'^ 

§ 72. The analysis of a proposition consists in 
separating it into its elements. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Subject and Predicate in the following propositions ;— 
tell how you know them. 

Model. — ^^JoJin reads,''^ is a proposition, because it contains a subject 
and predicate. " JolirC* is the subject, because it is that of which the 
proposition speaks. " Studies'^ is the predicate, because it expresses what 
is affirmed of the subject " John?^ 

Horses run. Animals live. Thomas sleeps. Rain falls. 
Men work. Death comes. Cows low. Dogs bark. Horses 
neigh. William walks. Susan dances. Stars shine. Birds 
sing. Lambs skip. Edward has fallen. Lucy will play. 
William will write. Robert has come. The girls have recited. 
The ocean roars. Difficulties vanish. Marion conquered. 
Mother reproves. The bell has rung. Beauty fades. The 
ball bounds. Powder explodes. Birds fly. Fish swim. 
Memory decays. The day dawns. Cotton grows. The teach- 
er calls. The slate is broken. Jane is an indolent girl. Mar- 
tha is meddlesome. The fox is cunning. The lion is bold. 

^^ These exercises should be continued until the learner clearly 
comprehends what constitutes a proposition, and is able to distinguish the 
terms that form its essential parts. Impress it on the pupil that nothing 
is more conducive to a correct knowledge of grammar than analysis. This 
vmderstood, he will be able to pursue liis course with pleasure and profit 



NOUNS.— OBSERVATIONS. — CLASSES. 31 

Of what must every proposition consist ? 
What is the analysis of a proposition ? 
"What is a Noun? Verb? Adjective? 
Pronoun ? Preposition ? Conjunction ? 
Exclamation ? 

NOUNS. 

§ 81. A Noun is the name of an object; e. g., 
Alfredy Charleston^ pencil. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — A noun is the name of an object This definition is 
equally true, whether the object has a real existence; e. g., Alfred^ 
Charleston^ pencil^ or is the name of an object that has no real existence 
independent of it, as whiteness, virtue, wisdom, 

REiiARK 2. — All words and signs taken technically are nouns, for in 
such cases they assume the character of nouns, and must be regarded a3 
Buch ; e. g., / and J were formerly expressed hj the same character, as 
were U and V. Us is a personal pronoun. There are eight ands in this 
sentence. Good is an adjective, -j" i^ t^® ^^©^ of addition. 

Remark 3. — The word object in the definition of a noun, must be care- 
fully distinguished from the same term used in Syntax to denote the 
complement of a transitive verb. 

Remark 4. — When a phrase or clause of a sentence is used to denote 
an object, it becomes a noun ; e. g., To see the sun is pleasant. 

Remark 5. — The noun is frequently called a substantive. All phrases 
or clauses used as nouns, are called substantive clauses. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

§ 82. Nouns are divided into two classess, 
Proper and Common. 



82 NOUNS. — OBSERVATIONS. 

§ 83. A Proper Noun is the name of an in- 
dividual object; e.g., George^ Marion^ Vesuvius, 

§ 84. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
objects of the same class; e. g., Bot/^ Tiand^ moiinfmn, 

§ 85. A Collective Noun, or Noun of Multitude, is the 
name of many individuals together; e. g., Army^ school^ com- 
mittee. 

§ 86. An Abstract Noun is tlie name of a particular qual- 
ity considered apart from its substance ; e. g., Piety ^ virtue^ 
goodness, 

§ 87. A Verbal Noun is the name of some action, or state 
of being ; e. g., Reading^ writing^ sleeping, 

§ 88. A Diminutive Noun is a name derived from another 
expressing some diminution of the original; e. g.. Stream, 
streamlet ; leaf, leaflet, 

§ 89. A Proper Noun with the definition a or the before it, 
]s used as a common noun ; e. g.. He was the Washington of 
his age. 

§ 90. A Common Noun when personified becomes proper ; 
e. g.j Hail, Liberty, 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — ^Whiteness, goodness, haste, confusion, action, existence, 
&c., are called abstract nouns, because they are the names of qualities 
abstracted, or considered apart from the objects to which they belong. 
Thus, honesty does not really exist without being cennected with some 
individual, but the mind abstracts it from individuals and considers it as 
an object existing by itself; e. g., Honesty is the best policy. 

Remark 2. — The names of metals, grain, &c., as iron, gold, wheat, 
snow, fire, do not denote classes of objects, but the substance of v/hich 
they are composed. Like abstract nouns they have no plural, and co not 
admit of a, a/z, or one before them. 



NOUNS. — EXERCISES. 83 

§ 91. To Nouns belong Gender, Person, Num- 
ber, and Case. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Nouns in the following exercises; tell why they are 
nouns ; — Proper, or Common, and why. 

Model. — "The horse runs swiftly." *'5br5e" is a noun because it is a 
name ; — Common, because it is a name applied to all objects of the same 
class. 

** Henry hurt his hand." " Henry^'* is a noun, because it is a name ; — 
Proper, because it is the name of an individual object 

Washington was the first president. Montgomery is the 
capital of Alabama. Wisdom is more precious than jewels. 
Alfred has a little doo- called Fido. The battle of Waterloo 
occurred in June. Proper names should begin w^ith capitals. 
Walnuts have hard shells, but sweet kernels. The fixed stars 
are supposed to be suns in other planetary systems. Abridge- 
ments of history in most respects are useless. To reason with 
the angry, is like whispering to the deep. Father went to 
Mobile in a steamboat. The words commonly called articles 
are classed with adjectives. Whiteness is the name of a qual- 
ity. Etymology treats of the classification of words. Neglect 
no opportunity to do good. In the winter water freezes. 
Hardness is natural to rocks. The hurricane destroyed the 
building. Cofi'ee is spelled with two fs and two es. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences, each containing an example of a Proper 
Noun. Five containino: a Common Noun. Five containinor a 
Collective Noun or Noun of Multitude. Five containing an 
Abstract Noun, Five containing a Verbal Noun. Five con- 



34 



NOUNS. — GENDEB. 



taining a Diminutive Noun. Five coutaining a Proper Noun 
used as a Common Noun. Five containing an example of an 
object personified. 

GENDER. 

§ 92. Gender is the distinction of Nouns with 
regard to sex. 

§ 93. There are three Genders ; the Mascu- 
line, the Feminine, and the Neuter. 

§ 94. The Masculine Gender denotes the male 
sex ; e. g., Man^ loy^ son. 

§ 95. The Feminine Gender denotes the female 
sex ; e, g., Woman^ girl^ daughter. 

§ 96. The Neuter Gender denotes objects that 

are neither male nor female ; e. g., Chair ^ house^ 

garden. 

§ 97. Animals whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be 
distinguished, are spoken of generally as Neuter; e. g., "James 
shot at the deer^ and missed ^7." 

§ 98. On the same principle we say of the child, it is sick. 

§ 99. Some nouns, naturally Neuter, by figure of speech 
become Masculine or Feminine ; e. g.. The Sun, he is setting ; 
tlie Moon, she is eclipsed. 

8 100. Thinofs that are stron<y and controllins:, are com- 
monly spoken of as Masculine ; — beautiful and dependent, 
Feminine. 

§ 101. A collective noun implying unity, or having the 
plural form, is Neuter ; but if it refers to the individuals named, 



NOUNS. — OBSERVATIONS. 35 

its gender corresponds; e. g., "The jury could not agree upon 
their verdict." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Nouns in English, according to the universal rule, have 
three genders ; but unlike most other languages, ancient or modern, the 
larger part of the words of this description belong to the neuter gender ; 
for none are considered as masculine or feminine without an actual dis- 
tinction of sex, unless in poetry, or in a very few instances of technical 
phrases. Even a ship, which is constantly spoken of by seamen as fem- 
inine, is neuter in common parlance. From this general rule, however, 
we must except the Deity, God, and other terms of the same signification, 
which are constantly masculine. Other nouns, as those of the planets, 
admit of being made masculine or feminine, because they are named after 
heathen divinities, as Jwpiter^ Juno ; or after distinguished men, Herschel. 
In the case of the sun and moon^ the English differs from its parent lan- 
guage; for the sun is feminine, and the moon masculine in the G-erman 
dialects in general, whereas the English in this foUows the Greek and 
Latin, and reverses the gender. In more ornate composition the virtues 
and the vices are also made mascuUne and feminine. In some cases 
nouns may be considered as of either gender; as /ox, goat^ &c. ; but ani- 
mals more commonly spoken of, have different terms for the sexes ; as 
lion^ lioness; stag^ hind. 

Remark 2. — The term "Common Gender," applied to such words as 
parent, cousin, friend, &c., is incorrect and unnecessary. When the gen- 
der of such words can not be determined by the context, in parsing, say 
gender unknown. This is better than an unphilosophical distinction. 

There are three ways of distinguishing sex. 

1. By the different words; e. g., 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Beau, 


Belle. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boar, 


Sow. 


King, 


Queen. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Lad, 


Lass. 



36 



KOUNS. — GBNDBE. 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Back, 


Doe. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Bullock, ) 
Steer, ) 


Heifer. 


Man, 
Milter, 


Woman. 
Spawner, 


Dog, 


Bitch. 


Nephew, 


Niece. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


Earn, 


Ewe. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Father, 
Friar, 


Mother. 
Nun. 


Singer, 


j Singer, or 
l Songstress. 


Gander, 


Goose. 


Sir, 


Madam. 


Hart, 


Eoe. 


Son,- 


Daughter, 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Sloven, 


Slut. 


Cock, 


Hen. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Stag, 


Hind. 


Wizard, 


Witch. 


2. By the different termmation ; e. 


g'l 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Elector, 


Electress. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


Administratorj 


> Administratrix. 


God, 


Goddess. 


Adulterer, 


Adulteress. 


Governor 


Governess. 


Author, 


Authoress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Canon, 


Canoness. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Cater, 


Cateress, 


Hunter, 


Huntress. 


Chanter, 


Chantress. 


Inheritor, 


j Inheritrix, or 
( Inheritress. 


Conductor, 


Conductress. 


Count, 


Countess. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Czar, 


Czarina. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Detractor, 


Detractress, 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Duko, 


Duchessb 


Mayor, 


Mayoress. 





NOUlTS.— 


GENDER. 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Suitor, 


Suitress. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Tiger, 


Tigress. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Testator, 


Testatrix. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 


Traitor, 


Traitress. 


Prince, 


Princess. 


Tyrant, 


Tyranness, 


Prophet, 


Prophetess. 


Tutor, 


Tutoress, 


Shepherd, 


Shepherdess. 


Victor, 


Victress. 


Songster, 


Songstress. 


Viscount, 


Viscountess, 


Sorcerer, 


Sorceress. 


Votary, 


Votress. 


Sultan, 


j Sultana or 
( Sultaness. 


Widower, 


Widow. 



87 



3. By a Noun, Pronoun, or Adjective, prefixed to the Noun; e. g., 
Masculine. Feminine. 



A cock sparrow. 
A he bear. 
A he goat. 
A male child. 
A male servant. 
Male descendants. 
Man-servant. 



A hen sparrow. 
A she bear. 
A she goat. 
A female child. 
A female servant. 
Female descendants. 
Maid-servant. 



EXERCISES. 

Tell the Masculine of the Feminine Nouns, and the Feminine of the 
Masculine. 
Model. — Man, Woman; Belle, Beau. 

Man, bachelor, host, man servant, beau, abbot, baron, drake, 
boy, deacon, doe, conductor, father, emperor, sister, duke, 
embassador, countess, mother, friar, goose, girl, husband, 
queen, lass, lady, dam, master, spawner, ram, wizard, hind, 
nephew, songster, votary, traitress, madam, poetess, uncle, 
daughter, abbess, bride, earl, enchantress, Czarina, lion^ em 



38 NOUNS. — EXERCISES. — PERSON. 

press, executor, testator, goddess, governess, heroine, hunt 
ress, Jewess, traitor, hen sparrow, inheritrix, lioness, in- 
structor, marchioness, songster. Sultana, landgravine, shep- 
herdess, prophetess, prince, testatrix, tigress, traitor, tyranness, 
victor, votary, viscountess, gander, widower, she-bear, dea- 
coness, male child, man servant. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of a noun of the 
Masculine Gender. Five containing an example of a noun of 
the Feminine Gender. Five containing an example of a noun 
of the Neuter Gender. Five containing a neuter noun changed 
to the Masculine or Feminine by personification. 

PERSON. 

§ 102. Person is that property of the noun (or 
pronoun) which distinguishes the speaker, hearer, 
and person or thing spoken of. 

§ 103. There are three Persons ; the First, the 
Second, and the Third. 

§ 104. The First Person denotes the speaker; 
e. g., "1, George Washington^ &c." 

§ 105. The Second Person denotes the indi- 
vidual addressed; e. g., "Theodore^ give me my 
knife." 

§ 106. The Third Person denotes the indi- 
vidual or thing spoken of; e. g., "Mary left her 
hook at liomer 



NOUNS. — OBSERVATIOXS. — EXERCISES. 39 

OBSERVATIONS. 

REifARK 1. — Nouns in the first or second porson are never used as the 
subject, or object of a verb, but may be put in apposition with others for 
the purpose of explanation ; e. g., " I, Paul, beseech you." 

Remark 2. — The names of inanimate objects are in the second person, 
when the objects to which they apply are spoken to. Objects thus ad- 
dressed are personified, and treated as though they were actual hearers • 
e. g., " And I have loved //iee, Ocean." 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the person of the nouns in the following exercises; — give the 
reason. 

Model. — '-J, Oeorge Washington," &c. '* George WasJiingtorC^ is of 
the First Person, because the speaker and "Washington are one. 

" Thomas, bring me your book." — " Thomas" is of the Second Person, 
because it denotes the individual addressed. 

"William is an attentive pupil." " WilUam'^ is of the Third Person, 
because it denotes, &c. 

Americans should love tlieir country. I, Paul, an apostle of 
Jesus Christ. John, I want your attention. Susan can write 
better than her sister. That man is so illiterate, he cannot 
read. Father, I must have a new^ book. Henry had many 
opportunities to learn, but did not improve them. We, the 
citizens of Montgomery. Matilda, does Alfred study at home ? 
Doctor Murray is an interesting speaker. Mason, the swindler, 
is at large. Miss M. EJdings was chosen queen of May. The 
prize essay was w^ritten by Thomas. I, Victoria, Queen of 
England. James, bring me your Virgil. The officer was 
wounded at Charleston. Men often differ in opinion, even 
about small things. Boys, you are dismissed. Sister is fond 
of drawing and painting. Thomas conducted himself very 
properly. 



40 NOUNS. — NUMBER. EXERCISES. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of a noun of the 
First Person. Five of the Second. Five of the Third. 



NUMBER. 

§ 107. Number is the distinction of one from 
more than one. 

Remark. — Tlie distinction of Numbers serves only to show whether we 
speak of one object or more than one. In some languages, as the Greek 
and Arabic, there is a dual number which denotes two or a pair ; but in 
ours this property of words, or class of modifications, extends no farther 
than to distinguish unity from plurality, and plurality from unity. It be- 
longs to nouns and pronouns and finite verbs, and is always applied to 
them, either by some peculiarity of form, or inference from the principles 
of concord. 

§ 108. Nouns have two numbers ; the Singu- 
lar and the Plural. 

§ 109. The Singular Number denotes but one 
object ; e. g., Man^ hoy^ girl. 

§ 110. The Plural Number denotes more ob- 
jects than one ; e. g., Men^ ^oijb^ girls. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the Number of the following nouns. 

Model. — ^' IlaC'' is of the Singular Number, because it denotes but one 
object. 

'^ Bruteii*^ is of the Plural Number, because it denotes more objects 
than oiie. 

Books, horse, nose, hat, inkstand, boy, map, pencil, paper, 

mother, table, hand, geography, men, boys, cap, mouth, ship, 



NOUNS. — FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 41 

academy, institute, curls, day, lamp, window, blinds, brother, 
cousin, pitcher, carpet, rug, mat, books, watch, pencil, friends, 
infant, chairs, lady, song, mountain, goblet, floor, telescope, an- 
dirons, stand, keys. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

§ 111. The Plural Number of Nouns is recru- 
larly formed by adding s to the Singular; e. g., 
Boy, bo?/s ; girl, c/irls, 

§ 112. Nouns in s, shy cli soft, 0, rr, or 0, form 
the Plural by adding es ; e. g., Miss, misses ; 
brush, brushes; match, matches; topaz, topazes; 
fox, foxes; hero, heroes. 

Exceptions. — Nouns in eo, io, and yo have 5 only; e. g., Cameo, ca- 
meos ; folio, folios ; embryo, embryos. So also canto, grotto, portico, solo, 
halo, quarto, formerly had s only in the plural, but now more commonly 
es. Nouns in ch sounding k, add only s ; e. g., Monarch, monarcTis. 

§ 113. Nouns ending infoiLfe form the Plural 
by changing / or fe into ves ; e. g., Loaf, leaves ; 
wife, wives. 

Exceptions. — Dwarf, scarf, reef, brief, chief, grief, handkerchief, mis- 
chief, gulf; turf, surf, safe, fife, strife, proof hoof, reproof, follow the general 
rule. Also nouns in ^ have their plural in 5; e.g., muff, mvffs; except 
staff, plural staves ; but its compounds are regular; e. g., flagstaff, flag- 
staffs ; wharf has either wharfs or wharves. 

§ 114. Nouns ending in ?/ after a consonant 
form the Plural by changing ?/ into tes ; e. g., 
Beauty, heaiities. Nouns in ?/ after a vowel, follow 
the general rule; e. g., Day, days ; toy, to?/s. 



42 



NOUNS. — FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 

8 115. Some nouns are irreOTlar in the formation of their 
plural ; such as — 



Singular. 


riural 


Man, 


men. 


Woman, 


women. 


Child, 


children 


Foot, 


feet. 


Ox, 


oxen. 



Singular. 

Tooth, 
Goose, 
Mouse, 
Louse, 



PluraL 

teeth, 
geese, 
mice, 
lice. 



Cow, formerly kine, 
but now regular, cows. 

§ 116. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular 
form of the plural, but with different significations ; as — 

Plural. 

one of the same family) brothers. 

one of the same society) 

a stamp for coining) 

a small cube for gaming) 



Singular. 

Brother 

Brother 

Die 

Die 

Genius 

Genius 

Index 

Index 

Pea 

Pea 

Sow 

Sow or swine 

Penny 

Penny 



men of genius) 
a kind of spirit) 
a table of referer. .e) 
a sign in algebra) 
as a distinct seed) 
as a species of grain) 
an individual animal) 
the species) 
a coin ) 



brethren, 

dies. 

dice. 

geniuses, 

genii. 

indexes. 

indices. 

peas. 

pease. 

sows. 

swine. 

pennies. 

pence. 



a sum or value) 

Remark. — Though pence is plural, yet such expressions as four-pence, 
Bix-pence, as the name of a sum, are regarded singular, and have a plural ; 
0. g., " Two six-pences make a shilling." 

§ 117. Compounds, consisting of two or more words con 
nected by a hyphen, are composed, either of two Nouns, one in 



NOUNS. — FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



43 



the sense of an Adjective, or a Noun and an Adjectiv^e. In 
<?ucli words, the sign of the Plural is added to that part of the 
ompound which constitutes the Noun, whether at the end of 
:he word or not ; e. g., 

Singular. Plural. 



aids-de-camp, 
fathers-in-law. 
commanders-in-chief. 



Aid-de-carap, 
Father in-law, 
Commander-in-chief, 

Note. — Compounds ending mful ov full form tho plural regularly; e. g., 
spooii-ful, spoon-fals ; cup-full, cup-fulls. 

§ 113. Words adopted without change from foreign lan- 
guages, generally retain their original plural. As a general 
rule, nouns in U7n or orij have a in the plural. Latin nouns in 
is, in the plural change is into es; Greek nouns in is, change 
^5 into ides; Latin nouns in a, change a into ce ; but Greek 
nouns change a into ata in the plural. The following are the 
most common, some of which, however, from common use, have 
become so much a part of the language as to have also the 
regular English form of the plural. In the following table 
these are indicated by the letter R. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumnus, 


alumni. 


Bandit, 


banditti. 


Alumna, 


alumnae. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


Beau, 


beaux, R. 


Analysis, 


analyses. 


Calx, 


calces, R. 


Animalculum, 


animalcula, R. 


Cherub, 


cherubim, R. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


Chrysalis, 


chrysalidea. 


Apex, 


apices, R. 


Crisis, 


crises. 


Appendix, 


appendices, R. 


Criterion, 


criteria. 


Arcanum, 


arcana. 


Datum, 


data. 


Auton-aton, 


automata, R. 


Desideratum, 


desiderata. 


Axis, 


axes. 


Diaeresis, 


disereses. 



44 



NOUNS. — rOEMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Effluvium, 


effluvia. 


Metal n orphosi s, m etam orphoses. 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses. 


Miasma, 


miasmata. 


Emphasis, 


emphases. 


Momentum, 


momenta, R. 


Encomium, 


encomia, R. 


Monsieur, 


messieurs. 


Ephemeris, 


ephemerides. 


Mr. (master), 


messrs.(mastersj 


Erratum, 


errata. 


Nebula, 


nebulae. 


Focus, 


foci. 


Oasis, 


oases. 


Formula, 


formulae, R. 


Parenthesis, 


parentheses. 


Fungus, 


fungi, funguses. 


Phenomenon, 


phenomena. 


Genius, 


genii. 


Radius, 


radii. 


Genus, 


genera. 


Scholium, 


scholia, R. 


Gymnasium, 


gymnasia, R. 


Seraph, 


seraphim, R. 


Hypothesis, 


hypotheses. 


Speculum, 


specula. 


Ignis fatuus, 


ignes fatui. 


Stamen, 


stamina, R. 


Index(a pointer) indexes. 


Stimulus, 


stimuli. 


Index (inalgeb. 


) indices. 


Stratum, 


strata. 


Lamina, 


laminae. 


Thesis, 


theses. 


Larva, 


larvae. 


Vertebra, 


vertebrae. 


Magus, 


magi. 


Vertex, 


vertices, R. 


Medium, 


media, R. 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosi. 


Memorandum 


memoranda, R. 


Vortex, 


vortices, R. 



§ 119. The names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, 
abstract qualities, and things that are either weighed or meas- 
ured, are used only in the Singular ; e. g., Gold^ industry^ 
sculpture, 

§ 120. The names of things weighed or measured, admit 
of a Plural, when several kinds of the same sort are referred to ; 
e. g., Wheats^ teas, 

§ 121. Some nouns are used only in the Plural ; e. g.. An- 
tipodeSy annalSy ashes, archives, assets, clothes, measles, oats^ 
wages, tidings, billows, tongs, &c. 



NOUNS. PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. 45 

§ 122. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; e. g., Deer^ 
sheep, swine, trout, ajjparatus, salmon, cannon, series, meanSj 
speciesj &c. 

§ 123. Some nouns are Plural in form, but cither Singular 
or Plural in meaning ; e. g., Amends, means, news, riches^ 
ethics, conies, optics, mathematics, &c. 

Remark. — Means and amends are Singular when they refer to one 
object, but Plural when morj than one. 

PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. 

8 124. In addressing: letters to several of the same name, 
the title is generally pluralized ; e.g., The Jlfi^^^^ Bell ; the 
Messrs, Kerr ; or before different names ; e. g., Messrs. Smith, 
Son, k Co. But in colloquial style, the name is usually plu- 
ralized ; e. g., The Miss Bells ; the two Mr. Kings ; unless 
before different names ; e. g., Misses Anna and Julia King ; 
Messrs, Snow & Rice ; Messrs, Pratt & Co. 

2^^ The name and title both never take the plural form. 

EXERCISES. 

"Write the Plural of the following Nouns : 

Girl, pen, table, tax, fish, chain, king, man, ring, body, leaf, 
mill, fox, ox, garden, fly, knife, city, fork, play, day, calf, lamp, 
cherry, Avoe, army, coach, child, hero, berry, peach wolf, vol- 
cano, lash, thief, branch, hill, sister, duty, penny, foot, inch, 
queen, dish, witch, buffalo, wish, copy, brush, glass, cargo, 
sheaf, sky, river, miss, witness, thrush, boy, monarch, toy, 
sheep, sex, beauty, potato, lass, echo, chimney, journey, book, 
valley, mouse, arcanum, court-martial, eclipse, automaton, axis, 
basis, crisis, criterion, effluvium, datum, diseresis, hypothesis, 
focus, erratum, genius, medium, lamina, parenthesis, radius, 



46 NOUNS. — QUESTIONS. 

phenomenon, stamen, sloth, stimulus, stratum, virtuoso, means, 
apparatus, species, series, gold, foot, tooth, pride, ambition, 
trout, mathematics, cannon. 

Write the Singular of the following Plurals : 

Brothers, children, wives, reproofs, tongs, criteria, crises, er- 
rata, sheep, ethics, courts-martial, cherubim, effluvia, riches, 
desiderata, species, scissors, lungs, ashes, optics, mathematics, 
teeth, thrushes, animalcula, apices, dice, boys, mice, vortices, 
theses, strata, stamina, seraphim, parentheses, memoranda, 
antipodes, arcana, alumni, foci, laminae, encomia. 

QUESTIONS. 

"What is a ISToun ? 

How are they divided ? 

What is a Proper Noun ? Common ? 

Collective ? Abstract ? Verbal ? 

Diminutive ? 

What is Gender ? 

How many Genders are there ? 

WTiat does the Masculine denote ? 

The Feminine ? Neuter ? 

What is said of the gender of animals whose sex is unknown ? 

What is the gender of Child frequently ? 

What is said of Neuter Nouns ? 

What of the gender of some Nouns ? 

Of Common Gender? 

How many ways are there of distinguishing sex ? 

What is the First ? The Second ? Third ? 

What is Person ? 

How many persons are there ? 

What does the First Person denote ? 



NOUNS. — CASE. 47 

The Second ? Tlie Third ? 
What is meant by Number? 
IIow many numbers are there ? 
What does the Singjular denote ? 
The PKiral ? 

What Xouns are Plural in form and Sino-ular or Plural in 
construction ? 

When do Proper Names take the Plural form ? 
What is said of the title Miss ? 

CASE. 

§ 125. Case is the relation of the noun (or pro- 
noun) to other words in a sentence. 

Explanation. — A Sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as 
to constitute a distinct proposition; e. g., ^^ Horses 7*w?i." 

§ 126. There are three Cases; the Nominative, 
the Possessive, and the Objective. 

OBSERYATIOiTS. 

Remark 1. — Case, in grammar, is founded on the different relations 
under which things are represented in discourse, and from which words 
acquire connexions and dependencies according to the sense. In Latin 
there are six cases, in Greek five ; the nouns and pronouns of these Lin- 
oruages, and also adjectives and participles, are varied by terminations un- 

nown in our languao:e. In English, cases belong to nouns and pronouns. 

nd are never more than three. 

Remark 2. — It was a subject of long dispute among grammarians what 
number of cases belonged properly to our language. Some, taking the 
[iutin for their model, contended for six cases, others again denied that 
there were more than two. Public opinion is now clear in the decision 
that nouns in English have three cases. 



43 KOUNS. — NOMINATIVE CASE. 

Bemark 3. — The Objective Case of Nouns is of the same form as the 
nominative, and is distinguished from it only bj the sense and position. 
The one cannot be mistaken for the other, without a total misconception 
of the author's meaning. 

NOMINATIVE CASE. 

§ 127. The Nominative Case indicates the re- 
lation of the subject ; e. g.^ " Horses run." 

Explanation. — The subject of a proposition is that of which something 
is affirmed. In the sentence " Horses run," " horses'^ is in the Nominative 
Case, because it indicates the relation of the subject. 

• OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — ^The Nominative Case generally precedes the Verb. 
Remark 2. — This Case is sometimes used as the attribute of a proposi- 
tion; — to identify the subject; — and in independent expressions. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Nouns that are in the Nominative Case ; — tell how you 
know they are in that case. 

Model. — "Dogs bark." ^^ Dogs'^ m in the Nominative Case, because 
it indicates the relation of the subject. 

Mary sings. Girls play. Thomas pumps. Children cry. 
William reads. Soldiers fight. The cat scratches. The lamp 
smokes. The hero conquered. Serpents hiss. Owls hoot. 
Fish swim in the river. Grirls play in the yard. Matilda 
paints. People vote. Mirrors reflect. Animals live. Trees 
fall. Parrots talk. Elizabeth can sing. The tyrant is base. 
George can write. Thomas has spoken. Mary embroiders. 
Francis and Robert are in the garden. The boys obey the 
teacher. Time flies swiftly. Henry submits patiently. The 



KOUNS. — POSSESSIVE CASE, 49 

mas believes John. The general commanded the army. FatLer 
received the information to-dav. James is doinof the v/ork. 

The woodman is cutting down the tree. The men are re- 
ceivino; their wa2:es. John is o-oinnj to Florida. Robert owns 
the boat. Marv has finished her task. Do you know all the 
particulars? We depend on your assistance. The ball ^vent 
over the house. Mary has written to her sister. The lion is 
in the cage. Arnold was a traitor to his country. Lucy is an 
excellent instructress. Milton was a distinguished poet. Anna 
is an affectionate dauo^hter. Mary Smith has an amiable (lis- 
position. William is older than John. Henry studies gram- 
mar and arithmetic. Alexander writes neatly. John is en- 
deavorinix to obtain the hiohest honor in his class. Minnie 
excels in composition. Has your uncle sold his farm ? 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 

§ 128. The Possessive Case indicates the rela- 
tion of ownership, source, or kind; e. g., '^Alfred's 
knife ; Suns rays ; Wehsters Dictionary; 



5> 



ExPLAXATiox. — " Alfred's knife ; Sun's rays ; Webster's Dictionary." 
"Alfred's" denotes ownership, "Sun's" source, and "Webster's" kind. 

OBSERYATIONS. 

Remark 1. — ''In respect to all matters of syntax considered ex- 
clusiveh', it is so thorouiibly a matter of indifference whether a word be 
an adjective or a grenitive case, that Walhs considers the words in '5, like 
fuller's, not as genitive cases, but adjectives. Looking to the logic of the 
question, he is rig! it; an 1 looking to the practical sjntax of the question, 
he is ri^ht also, lie is wrong only on th3 etymological side." — LATiiAil. 

Remark 2. — Tlic Possessive Case always precedes its limiting word ; 
e. g., Alfred's knife. 

3 



50 NOUNS. — EXERCISES. 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the Nouns that are in the Possessive Case ; — tell how you 
know they are in that case. 

Model. — " Henry's cap." ** Ilsnry's^^ is in the Possessive Case, because 
it limits the ownership to *' Renry,^^ 

" Sun's raj's." '* Swn/s^^ is in the Possessive Case, because it limits 
source to *' .swtz." 

" Mitchells Geography.'* " MltchelV s''' is in the Possessive Case, because 
it limits kind to " MlichelV^ 

William has lost Alfred's knife. Merchants have boy's hats. 
The dog has bitten John's finger. Robert's brother has pur- 
chased land in Texas. AVillis rode Alfred's pony. Mary's 
diligence deserves praise. Ileniy uses Davies' Arithmetic. 
Samuel's father lives in to\Yn. Edward's industry will gain 
friends. Wa^iington's army endured many hardships. Stephen's 
courage failed. Wildredge sold Alfred's ball. Have you ex- 
amined Nordheimer's Grammar ? Sarah's kitten is very play- 
ful. Eobert has found his mother's fan. Jane's sister cul- 
tivates flowers in her yard. Robert's teacher prefers Day's 
Ali;cbra. William's don; caui^ht the thief. Aln;cr's Arithmetic 
is highly recommended. Sarah's pencil is on the table. 

Archimedes' screw was the topic of conversation. The 
servant has Ella's coral. Gertrude's Dream is a beautiful 
waltz. Father's spectacles are on his nose. The king's com- 
mrind must be obeyed. Have you seen William's cap ? What 
do you think of Coms'ock's Philosophy ? Robert's tutor is 
sick. His theme was "The Soldier's Prowess." Napoleon's 
army was deflate J, Uaud me broth *r's slate. My knife is on 
Robert's dcsk^ 



N0UX3. — FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE. 61 



RULES FOr?. FORMING THE POSSESSIVE. 

§ 12D. A Noun i.i t-ic Singular Number forms the Possess- 
ive regularly by adding the apos.rophe and the letter s to the 
Nominative ; c. g., Alfred, AlfrecVs, 

§ 130. The comma that precedes the s is called an apos- 
trophe. 

§ 13 1. When the Nominative Plural ends in 5, the Possess- 
ive is formed by adding the apostrophe only ; c. g., Boy, hoys\ 

§ 132. When the Plural docs not end in 5, the Possessive 
is formed by taking the apostrophe and the letter s ; c. g., 
Men, mens, 

8 133. When the Sino-ular ends with the sound of 5, 
or 2', to avoid harshness of sound, the s after the apostrophe 
is sometimes omitted ; e. g., Goodness' sake ; Archimedes^ 
screw. 

§ 134. In regard to the omission of the 5, no definite rulo 
can be given ; the ear alone must decide. 

Note. — There is considerable diversity of opinion and usage on this 
point. Some few insist on retaining s after the apostrophe in every posi- 
tion ; a?, "Xaiithus's stock of patience." — V Estrange. Others drop the s 
only before a word begirming with an s, or an 5 sound, as above; while 
others drop the s wherever tlie use of it would produce harshness, or diffi- 
culty of pronunciation. Though in this last, the usage which omits the 3 
is l.ss prevalent and less accurate than that which retains it, yet, from 
the sanction it has obtained — from the stiffness and harslmess which 
retaining the s cficn occasions — and from the tendency in all spoken lan- 
guages to abbreviation and euphony, it seems destined to prevail against 
all arguments to the contrary. 

8 13.J. In compound words the siixn of the Possessive is 
placed at the end of the word ; e. g., Robert rode his father* 
i'^'laioh' horse. 



62 KOUNS.— OBJECTIVE CASE, 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1 . — This sign ('6-) used after characters merely denotes plU' 
rality ; e. g., " The ?/'s, the aj's, and the z's." 

Remark 2. — This sign ('6) is a contraction of is or es ; e. g., "John's 
and King's" anciently were written JohniSj Kingis ; and sometimes 
Johnes^ Kinges, 

Remark 3. — The meaning of the Possessive may, in general, be ex- 
pressed by the word of with the Objective; thus for ^^ man's wisdom," 
*^ virtue's reward," we may say the wisdom of man, the reward of virtue. 
This mode should be adopted, when the use of the Possessive would ap- 
pear stiff or awkward; e. g., " The length of the day," in place of the 
day's length. 

EXERCISES. 

"Write the Possessive of the following words. 
Model. — Dog, dog^s. 

Girl, book, man, witness, Alice, Charles, master, prince, 
pupil, author. Creator, clock, Adam, Aristides, Knox, mis- 
chief, beauty, sister, goodness, righteousness, Murray, con- 
science, brother, motlier-in-law, knight-errant, cobbler, car- 
penter, uncle, cousin, aunt, soldier, duty, Mary, Alfred, scholar, 
Socrates, Moses, teacher, doctor, James, philosopher, Kepler, 
Cass, grammarian, William, Fox, alderman, Melcher, Beech, 
countess, objector, husband, Fulton, Johnson, astronomer, 
Puritan. 

OBJECTIVE CASE. 

§ 136. The Objecth^e Case expresses the rela- 
tion of the object. It is used to limit the action 
of a Transitive Verb, or complete the relation of Pre- 
position ; e. g.," Fulton applied steam to navigation^ 



NOUNS. — OBSERVATIONS. EXERCISEJ. 53 

KxPLAXATiox. — In the sentence " Fulton applie;:! steam to navigation," 
5feam limits the action expressed by the verb opptled; navigation com- 
pletes the relation of the preposition to. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — This case may be known by its answering to whom, or 
wliat^ after the Verb or Proposition; o. g., "Fulton applied steam 1o 
navigntion." " AppUjd what ?" *• Appliad st3am." " To what ?" '* To 
navii^atloii." 

Remark 2. — The Objective Case with the preposition of is frequently 
used instead of the Possessive ; e. g., "The power of the Almighty." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Nouns in the Objective j — tell how you know they are in 
that cavse. 

Model. — " Merchants sell goods to customers." " Goods'* is in the Ob- 
jective Case, because It linilts the action expressed by the transitive verb 
stU. " Se:i what ?" " Sell goods." 

" Customers''' is in the Objective Case, because it completes tl:e relation 
expressed by the prep jsltion to. " To what ?" " To cusiornsrs-y 

Idleness produces poverty. James lovts play. Perseverance 
overcomes difficulties. Bees collect honey from flowers. Kit- 
tens love mischief. Soldiers fi'j-lit for o^lorv. The lawyer was 
engaged by the man. Birds build nests in tall trees. History 
relates facts of the ancients. Preparations were ma le for the 
party. Thomas writes exercises at school. Brother is studying 
astronomy with father. Alfred computed the interest on the 
note. Robert killed game for his aunt. Planets revolve in the 
firmament. 

Planters own slaves. Father blamed Thomas for his un- 
kindness to James. The president pronioted th'j ofllocr. Fire 
consumes wood. Teachers praise diligent pupils. Charles has 



64 NOU]^. — DELCENSION. 

read the book. America has produced many distinguished 
men. The jury after much consideration returned the verdict. 
The frost has destroyed tlie prospeo-t for fruit this vear. Wash- 
mgton Irving has written a history of Cokmibus, the great 
navigator. All esteem Mary for her noble qualities. Undo 
has just returned from Washington, the capital of the United 
States. 

DECLENSION OE NOUNS. 

§ 137. The Declension of a Noun is its varia- 
tion to denote Number and Case. 

Remark. — There are a few irregular Nouns that varj from these ex- 
amples. 

EXAMPLE I.—ERIEND. 
Singular. Plural. 

JVom, Friend. J^om, Friends. 

Poss, Friend's. Poss, Friends'. 

Obj. Friend. Ohj, Friends. 

EXAMPLE II.— FOX. 
Sln;?ular. Plural. 

J}^om, Fox. Nom, Foxes. 

Poss. Fox's. Poss. Foxes'. 

Ohj. Fox. Ohj. Foxes. 

EXAMPLE III.— FLY. 
Singular. Plural. 

J^om. Fly. Nom. Flies. 

Poss. Fly's; , Poss. Flies'. 

Ohj. Fly. Ohj. Flies. 

EXAMPLE lY.— MAiT. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Man. Nom. Men. 

Poss. Man's. Poss. Men's. 

Ohj. Man. Ohj. Men. 



NOUNS. — EXERCISES. 5.^ 



EXERCISES. 



Tell the Gender, Number, Person and Case, of tlie Nouns in the follow- 



ing exercises. 



Model. — " Matilda excels Augusta in penmanship." '' Matilda'^ is a 
Noun, Proper, Peminine, of the Third Person ; it is made in the Nomina- 
tive Singular, and is the subject of the proposition ''Matilda excels Au- 
gusta in penmanship." 

" Augusta^ ^ is a Noun, Proper, Feminine, of the Third Person ; it U 
made in the Objective Singular, and limits the action expressed by the 
transitive verb excels. 

*' Penmanship'^ is a Noun, Common, Neuter, of the Third Person ; it is 
made in the Objective Singular, and completes the relation expressed i)y 
the preposition in. 

Henry has lost William's book. Thomas borrowed x^lfrcd's 
gan for George. Matilda's slate is on Sarah's desk. Birds 
have wings. Seamen navigate ships. Uncle has a large in- 
come from his plantation. Robert's diligence deserves the 
highest commendation. The sun's rays have dispersed the 
clouds. Julia has soiled Mary's gloves. Charles is making a 
fortune by close application to his business. Did the dog bite 
John's linger yesterday ? Susan walked with Mary by moon- 
light. The frost may injure the crop. 

Our teacher shall decide the difficulty for us. Thomas saw 
Charles. William told a pleasing anecdote about George. 
Elizabeth fainted in church. The poor man died of hunger. 
William's horse ran with his brother. Matilda excels Sarah in 
penmanship. God's goodness is great. Industry promotes 
happiness. Albert's dog guards the house at night. Amer- 
icans love to speak of Washington. Seamen navigate ships. 
Christ often spoke in parables. Robbers w^aylay travelers for 
plunder. William's sister destroyed her book. Napoleon 
Bonaparte took the city of Moscow. The king's heart is in 



56 NOUNS. — PARSING. 

the hands of the Lord. We have finished the task. John 

wishes to be excused from recitation. 

PARSING. 

Parsing consists : — 

1. In telling the Part of Speech ; 

2. In naming its properties, or accidents; 

3. In pointing out its relation to other words, 
and giving the rule for its construction. 

In parsing a Noun, say : — 

1. It is a Noun; (why?) 

2. It is Common or Proper ; (why ?) 

3. It is of the Masculine^ Feminine^ or Neuter Gender; 
(why ?) 

4. It is of the Frist ^ Second, or Third Person ; (Why ?) 

5. It is made in the Nominative^ Possessive^ or Objective 
Case ; (why ?) 

6. Singular or Plural Number ; (why ?) 

7. Hale for Construction. 

Remark. — The pupil who has been thoroughly drilled on the introduc- 
tory course, may parse without giving the reasons. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Nouns in the following exercises. 

Model. — " John drove the horse from father's barn." " Jb^n" is a 
Noun, Proper, MascuUne, of the Third Person. It is mada in the Nomi- 
native Singular, and is the subject of the proposition, ''John drove th€ 
horse from father's barn," according to 

Rule I. — The Subject of a proposition must be in the Nominative Oasa 



NOUNS. — PARSING.- -EXEilCISES. 67 

" Horse'' is a Noun, Common, Masculine, of tlio Third Person. It is 
made in the Objective Singular, and limits the action expressed by tho 
verb drove^ according to 

Rule III. — A Noun or Pronoun used to limit the action of a transitiv** 
verb must bo hi the Objective Case. 

^^ Father's'' is a Noun, Common, Masculine, of the Third Person. It i.-^ 
made in the Possessive Singular, and limits harn^ according to 

Rule Y. — A Noun or Pronoun used to limit the relation of owners'. lip 
soiree or kind, is put in the Possessive. 

" Barn" is a Noun, Common, Neuter, of the Third Person. It is mado 
in the Objective Singular, and completes the relation expressed by tho 
preposition /rom, according to 

Rule X. — A Noun or Pronoun used to complete the relation of a 
preposition must be in the Objective Case. 

Thomas liurt James. \Yebstor visited Europe. Robert 
purchased toys for his brother. Quarrels make trouble. Wil 
liam owns the book. Mary gathered flowers for Julia. Men 
worship God. Piety promotes happiness. Anger causes 
hatred. Jane's uncle Stephen gave her bad advice. The 
architect draws plans for buildings. Antony beheaded Cicero. 
Diligence deserves praise. Willis called Alfred. The girls 
have gone to gather strawberries. Uncle's orchard produces 
fine fruit. Lucy may study music. Labor disgraces no man. 
George has read the required course in Latin. We ascended 
the mountain by a crooked path. 

Dale, the carpenter, has gone to New York. Edward has 
lost the point of his pencil. Samuel's brother lives near the 
city. Washington endured many hardships in achieving the 
independence of his country. Davies' Course of Mathematics 
is very generally used in this section. Nero has got mother's 
fan in his moutli and is carrvino; it to her. Have vou heard 
our eloquent senator? Charles may yet find it to his advan- 
tage to listen to his father's advice. Edward's obliging dispo* 

8* 



58 NOUNS. — QUESTIONS.— VEHB. 

sition will gain liim many friends. What kind of a place do 
you live in ? Give me a description of your ride home. Re- 
late an anecdote about the do^:. Is it cruel to kill animals ? 
Composition is the putting together of thoughts under a sub- 
ject. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Case ? 

How many Cases are there ? 

Upon what is the distinction of Case founded ? 

What does the Nominative Case express ? 

What does it usually precede ? 

How is it distinguished ? 

How is the Possessive Singular formed ? 

What is the rule when the Plural ends in s ? 

When it does not end in 5 .^ 

When the Singular ends in ss or letters of a similar sound ? 

What is said of Compound Words ? 

What does the Objective Case express ? 

How used ? 

How distinguished ? 

What is Declension ? 

Decline Man. Friend. Fox. Fly. 



VERB. 

§ 138. A Verb is a word by which something 
is affirmed of a person or thing ; e. g., '' Matilda 
reads;'' " YirtuQ is praised /' " Thoiwis sleej?s.'' 

Explanation. — That of which anvthino; is affirmed is called 
the subject of the verb ; that which is affirmed of the subject 



. VERBS. — OBSERVATIONS.— EXERCISES. 69 

is called the predicate. In the example, "Matilda reads," 
reads is a verb because it expresses what is affirmed of Ma- 
tilda. 

XoTE. — So various have been tho opinions of grammarians respecting 
this part of speech, that no definition yet given is considered unobjectionablo. 
The greatest and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition 
is difficult, if not impossible to be formed. Home Took, the distingu'shed 
author of the Diversions of Purley, after citing with contempt various 
efforts at a definition, some in Latin, some in English, and some in 
French, turns from them with disgust, leaving his readers to imagine »^ 
they can, what he conceived a verb to be. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — A Verb expresses an action or state ; e. g., 
" Matilda reac?5 ;" " Thomas 5^eej95 ;" — or it connects an attri-- 
bute with the subject ; e. g., " The earth is round." 

Remark 2. — All verbs belong to the former of these classes, 
except the verb to he^ the most common use of which is to con- 
nect an attribute wuth a subject. When so used it is called 
the copula. 

Remark 3. — ^The word affirm, as used in the definition given 
of the verb, includes an absolute declaration, a conditional state- 
ment, an interrogation^ a petition^ and a commamd ; e. g., 
" Emma learns ;" " If Emma learns ;" " Does Emma learn P^ 
^^ May Emma /earw ;" "Emma, /^ar?i." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Yerbs in the following exercises ; — tell how you know 
them. 

Model. — "John spoke." *^ SpoJce^^ is a Verb, because it expresses 
what ifi at^riDdd of Johu. 



60 VERBS.— EXERCISES. — CLASSIFICATION. 

Birds sing. Animals live. Stars sliine. Night conies. 
Fruit ripens. Cornvvallis surrendered. The agreement was 
fulfilled. Flowers bloom. The invalid has recovered. Good 
deeds are praiseworthy. Men prevail. The pirates were con- 
demned. The story was interesting. Good children obey 
tlieir parents. The magistrates executed the law^ The sol- 
diers stood to arms. Cicero expelled Catiline. Wicked men 
are revengeful. Bad boys delight in mischief. Great labor 
brings great reward. The air is damp. Anna Nutting has 
gone to Sumpter. Julia is an interesting child. Mary has 
bought a new dress. 

Soldiers fight for glory. Alfred has performed his task. 
Henry found a knife in the road. Robbers waylav travelers 
for plunder. The horse ran with George. Thomas saw^ Rufus 
^i school. The frost has injured the garden. Father gave the 
permission. Jane plotted with Martha. Minnie fainted in 
church. Who will read the story to Edw^ard ? The smith 
shod the horse. The mind requires relaxation. Perseverance 
overcomes difficulties. Idleness produces want. The president 
decided the question. Girls love amusement. Willis delivered 
the message. Brother Edwin wrote the letter. The prudent 
boy avoids danger. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write ten nouns, five proper and five common, with predi- 
cates to each. 

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 

§ 139. Verba are of two kinds : Transitive, 
and Intransitive. 



VERBS. — OBSERVATIONS. — EXERCISES. 61 

§ 140. Transitive Verbs are such as admit of 
an object ; e. g., " Charles struck William^ 

§ 141. Intransitive Verbs are such as do not 
admit of an object; e. g., ^^Mary sleeps'' 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — The word transitive meam passing over; Verbs 
of this class are so called, because the action is represented as 
passing over from the subject to the object; e. g., "Henry 
struck Charles." 

Remark 2.— As the object of a transitive verb is in the ob- 
jective case, any verb which makes sense with 7ne, thee, liirny 
her, tcs, or them, is a transitive V'3vh ; e. g., " Thomas saw him.'* 

Remark 3. — The same verb may be transitive in one sense, 
and intransitive in another. In the sentence, " He believes my 
story," believes is transitive ; but in the sentence, " He believes 
in God," the verb is intransitive. 

Remark 4. — Intransitive verbs, from their nature, have no 
distinction of voice. In form they are generally active ; e. g., 
" I stand:' 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Verbs; — ^tell which are Transitive, and which Intran- 
sitive. 

Model. — "Horses eat com." "iJa^" is a Verb, because it expresses 
what is affirmed of horses ; — Transitive, because it is limited by the ob- 
ject corn. 

"The wind blows." ^^ Blows'^ is a Verb, because it expresses what ia 
affirmed of wind; — Intransitive, because it does not admit of an object. 

Henry struck George. Geese swim in the pond. Little Tip 
growled at Jane. The dog barks. Edward saw James. Henry 



62 VERBS. — EXERCISES. — BlVISIOlSr, 

lives there. Boys swim in the river. The soldiers camped in 
the field. John laughed at Thomas. George found Edward's 
arithmetic. The artist has finished the painting. Hiram slept 
on the sofa. Caroline disobeyed her mother's instruction. 
Writers often difi'er on unimportant topics. John gathered 
some nice grapes for his mother. Men vote at elections. Time 
and tide wait for no man. God created the heavens and the 
earth. 

Minnie admires music. James has gained much informa- 
tion. Eliza's doll is in Jane's box. The earth produces fruit 
for man. Idleness produces poverty. Robert's dog has caught 
a squirrel. The moon shines bright. Pamelia remained after 
schooh The sun has parched the earth. Virtue and vice 
have their reward. The carpenter has built a new bridge 
across the river. Emma smiled sweetly. Gcorgiann has 
many admirers. Anna has gone to Sampter to visit her aunt, 
Jane repented of her conduct too late. Good habits secure 
respect. The falls of Niagara are on a river of the same name. 
Pope constrained his mind to his own rules of composition, 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

"Write five sentences containing an example of a Transitive 
Verb; — write ^vo containing an example of an Intransitive 
Verb. Point out and explain the difference between the Tran- 
sitive and Intransitive Verb by an example of each in the same 
sentence. 

DIVISION OF VERBS. 

§ 142. In respect to form^ Verbs are either 
Regular, Irregular, or Defective. 



VERDS. — INFLECTION. —VOICEo. 63 

§ 143. A Regular Verb is one that forms its 
second root by the addition of d to the first when 
it ends in a vowel, and ed^ when a consonant ; 
e. g., Love, loved; paint, painted. 

Explanation. — The first root is the simple form of tlie 
verb, and is always the same as the First Person Singular of 
Indicative Present ; c. g., Love^ paint, 

§ 144. An Irregular Verb is one that does not 
form its second root by the addition of d or ed to 
the first ; e. g., Fight, fought. 

Explanation. — In irreii'ular verbs the second root is formed 
by some change or modification of the first ; e. g., Sing, sang; 
bite, hit, 

§ 145. A Defective Verb is one that wants 
some of its parts. They are chiefly the Auxiliary 
and Impersonal Verbs. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

§ 146. To the Inflection of Verbs belong VoiceSy 
MoodSy TenseSy Niimhers^ and Persons. 

VOICES. 

§ 147. Voice is a particular form of the verb, 
which shows the relation of the subject^ or thing 
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

§ 148. Transitive verbs have two voices; the 
Active y and the Passive. 



64 VERBS. — EXERCISES. 

§ 149. A verb in the Active Yoice represents 
the subject as acting on some person or thing called 
the object; e. g.^ ^^John struck Charles^ 

§ 150. The Passive Voice represents the ob- 
ject as being acted upon by the agent; e. g., 
" Charles was struck by John." 

Remark. — From a comparison of the two precedmg ex- 
amples, it is obvious tliat they have the same meaning. The 
Passive Voice may be substituted for the Active, at the pleas- 
ure of the speaker, by mating the object of the active the sub- 
ject of the passive, and the subject of the active the object of 
relation ; e. g., *^ John struck Charles ;" — " Charles was struck 
hy JohnV 

EXERCISES. 

Substitute the Active form of the verb for the Passive, and the Passive 
for the Active. 

Virtue produces happiness. America was discovered by 
Columbus. Henry and his cousin study grammar. Virgil 
wrote poems. Teachers praise diligent pupils. Teeth are 
extracted bv dentists. Brutus killed Ca3sar. Cornwallis was 
defeated by Washington. The fishermen were mending their 
nets. The plantation was cultivated by about forty hands. 
The old servant followed little Mary to school. The horse was 
shod by the smith. 

AVilliam assisted his brother. The composition was read by 
.vister Maria. Mariners traverse the ocean. The discovery of 
the theft create 1 great confusion among the pupils. The 
earth produces fruit for man and beast. Parents should be 
obeyed by their children. Rome was burnt by the Emperor 



VERBS. — OBSERVATIONS. 65 

Nero. Evil communications corrupt good manners. By 
diligent study and perseverance the professor attained great 
reputation. Punctuality begets great confidence. The stars 
were hidden by the dark clouds. Old puss ^vas bitten by 
Carlo. The warm rays of the sun melted the ice. Scipio 
conquered Hannibal. Muramius after a long siege destroje** 
Corinth. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Eemark 1. — In the Active Voice the object is sometimes omitted ; e. g, 
" Richard reads." 

Remark 2. — When the agent is unknown, or we wish to conceal 
the name by dra\sing attention only to the ad^ and the object affected hy 
it, we use the Passive Voice; e. g., "Cornwalhs was defeattdP Bui 
when we wish to make the agent prominent, we use tlie Active Voice ; 
e. g., *' Washington defeated Cornwallis." 

Remark 3. — An Intransitive Verb cannot be used passively, because W 
has no object for a subject. But Intransitive Verbs followed by a prepo- 
sition are sometimes put in the passive form by making the object cf the 
preposition the subject of the verb; e. g., '*She smiled on /izi/n;" '"He 
was smiled on by her." \ 

Remark 4. — Intransitive Verbs are sometimes followed by the objective 
case of a noun of kindred signification to their own; e. g., '' Thomas ran 
a race with Henry." 

Remark 5. — A few Intransitive Verbs, as come^ arise^ fall, rise, &c., 
have the form of the passive voice, but are active in signification ; e. g., 
**I am come," (have come). 

This idiom may be regarded as an imitation of the French or German 
forms of similar verbs. 

Remark 6. — When a verb takes two objects in the active vo'ce, one 
direct and the other indirect, the latter is sometimes mnclo the subjict of 
the passive ; e. g., *'I told him a story ;" " lie. was iold a storyy 



66 VERBS. — MOODS. — EXERCISES. 

MOODS. 

§ 151. Moods are forms of the verb; denoting 
the manner of the action or state expressed by the 
verb. 

§ 152. There are five Moods ; the Indicative^ 
the Suhjiinctive^ the Potential^ the Imjperaiive^ and 
the Infinitive. 

§ 153. The Indicative Mood expresses an as- 
sertion^ or asks a question; e. g., ^'I 'praise;' 
''Do \ praise f 

§ 154. The Subjunctive Mood expresses a con- 
dition, supposition or doubt; and always has a 
conjunction before it expressed or understood ; 
^- g-? " ^f Mary study ^ she will improve." 

§ 155. The Potential Mood expresses ability, 
power, will, or obligation; e. g., ^^I may ivriteT 

§ 156. The Imperative Mood expresses a com- 
mand, request, or permission ; e. g., " Obey your 
parents." 

§ 157. The Infinitive Mood expresses an action, 
or state, without limiting it to any person or thing 
as its subject; e. g., ''^ To love!' 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Verb in the following exercises; — tell the Mood that it ia 
made in. 

Model. — " Virgil wrote poems." " Wrofe" is a Verb ; it is made in the 
Indicative Mood, because it expresses an assertion. 



VERBS. EXERCISES. OBSERVATIONS. 67 

The day is very pleasant. If it rains, I shall not go to Mont- 
gomery. The company were seated by the fire. Do let me 
help yon. If I were to write, he would not regard it. Imi- 
tate the example of the good ; shun the bad. May I go to 
the concert? Alfred loves to oblige Matilda. Do you love to 
oblige your parents? My son, avoid all haughtiuess of be- 
liavior. Improve your diction. 

Mary will assist, if desired. Are you fond of political de- 
bates? Please excuse James from recitation this morning. 
Charles should read Rollin's Ancient History. Love justice, 
ter.iperance, and frugality. Can you go to town to-morrow ? 
May I speak to Miss Hannah ? Robert has gone to attend the 
lecture, and will not return before morning. Good example is 
worlhy of imitation. 

I could love her, but for her disposition. George might 
write to his father by James. The lamb is an emblem of inno- 
cence. Permit me to leave my seat. Honor thy father and 
mother. Has my boy broken his promise ? It is wrong to 
avenge an injury. I love them that love me, and they that 
seek me early shall find me. Come unto me, all ye that are 
weary and heavy laden, and I will give you rest. 

OBSERVATION'S. 

Remark 1. — The Indicative Mood is used in principal pro- 
positions. It is employed to represent what is actual^ or ab- 
solute. It is also used in interrogative or exclamatory sen- 
tences; e. g., ^'' Has sister arrived P "Thomas has broken 
Robert's slate!" 

This mood is often used in subordinate propositions ; in such 
cases, it always represents what is actual ; e. g., " I know that 
l;o is a scholar." 



68 VERBS. — OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 2. — The Subjunctive Mood is so called, because it 
is used only in dependent clauses. It is usually connected with 
the principal or leading clause by a conjunction, such as ^/', 
thatj unless^ though^ lest, &c. This mood, in its distinctive 
form, is now but little used. There is a strong tendency by 
the best writers and speakers to lay it aside and use the indi- 
cative and potential in its place. Indeed, the indicative form, 
" If he ffoes,''^ — or, " If he shall go /' — or the potential form, 
"If he should go^l'' is now almost always preferred to the sub- 
junctive form. The best of the recent writers on this subject, 
regard such expressions, as " If he should go," as the future, 
elliptical ; so then this mood is nothing more than the indica- 
tive or potential under the influence of some particle denoting 
condition. It has the same number of tenses as the indicative. 

Remark 3. — The Potential Mood is also used in principal 
propositions ; not, however, to represent the actual, but that 
which at the time of speaking exists, or is supposed to exist, 
only in idea. This mood may be used in interrogative, excla- 
matory, or supplicatory sentences. It may be used in sub- 
ordinate propositions to represent what is ideal or what has not 
been realised. 

This mood may be known by its signs may, can^ musty 
mighty could., would^ should. 

Remark 4. — The Imperative Mood is used in principal pro- 
positions. This mood is used to express will or desire ; it may 
usually be known by the omission of the subject. 

Remark 5. — The Infinitive Mood is used in abridged pro 
positions ; as the element of another proposition :t is wholly 
dependent. It is never used to assert anything, and is not 
varied by person and number like the tenses of other moods. 

In construction it may be regarded as a verbal or abstract 
noun. As such it is used, 



VERBS. — OBSERVATIONS. 69 

1. x\s the subject of a proposition ; e. g., " To err is human." 

2. With the copula, as a predicate ; e. g., " To obey is to 
enjoyP 

3. In apposition; e. g., "Delightful task, to instruct the 
vouno-." 

4. As the object of a transitive verb ; e. g., " Emma loves to 
play,^'' 

5. As the object of a preposition ; e. g., " James is about to 
leave P 

This mood, while it has the construction of a noun, may- 
have all the modifications of a verb. The sign to that precedes 
it, by some is called a preposition ; it resembles a preposition 
in nothino: but form. 

Home Tooke says that to has the same origin as do^ and is 
indeed the same word. " Verbs in Englisli not being distin- 
guished as in other languages by a peculiar termination, and 
rt. being sometimes impossible to distinguish them by their 
place^ when the old termination of the Anglo-Saxon verbs was 
dropped, this word to (i. e. act^) became necessary to be prefixed, 
in order to distinguish them from nouns, and to invest them 
witli the verbal character, for there is no diflference between 
the NOUN, love, and the verb, to love, but what must be com- 
prised in the prefix toP — Diversions of Purley, 

"And for the same reasons that to is put before the infinitive, 
do used formerly to be put before such other parts of the verb 
which likewise were not distinguished from the noun by termi- 
nation.'^ — Ibid, Thus it seems, in the opinion of this distin- 
irnished author, the sign to before the infinitive is an auxiliary 
verb. 



70 VERBS. — TENSES. — EXERCISES. 

TENSES. 

§ 158. Tenses are forms of the verb^ den)ting 
the time of the action or state expressed by the 
verb. 

§ 159. There are three divisions of time ; — 
the Pasty the Present^ and the Future. 

Kemark. — The Present, strictly speaking, is the point in 
which the Past and Future meet, and which of itself has no 
space of continuance. If we take the smallest imaginable por- 
tion of time for the Present, it will contain some of the Past 
and some of the Future. In grammar, however, the Present is 
not regarded in this strict sense, but as extending to a greater 
or less period, of which the passing instant forms a part ; as, 
this moment^ Jiour^ day^ weeJc^ &c., &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Yerbs in the following exercises ; — mention the divisions 
of time referred to. 

Emma plays well. Jane will go home. The rain is falling 
fast. David was badly injured yesterday. Ellen saw her sis- 
ter in the buggy. Matilda walked in the garden. Mary loves 
her teacher and her school. Prej)arations were made for a 
picnic. Your exercises are well written. Martha is vciy 
troublesome. Thomas will assist his brother. 

I heard a noise in the park. Fulton applied steam to navi- 
2:ation. The hunters cauo-ht a fox with the do^fs. Gentle 
manners are winning. Bad boys often do wrong. Willian)'s 
pony galloped through the field. Human knowledge is pro- 
gressive. Alfred will obtain the prize for good conduct. The 



VERBS. — TENSES. 71 

elephant will kill the tiger. The Savior spoke in parables. 
Merchants sell goods to customers. Will you bring me that 
book ? Sallie cut the apple with John's knife. 

§ ICO. In each division of time there are two 
Tenses ; — First and Second. There are^ therefore, 
six tenses ; — three Jirsty and three second. 

§ 161. The First Tenses take the name of the 
division to which they belong. They are called 
the Present^ the Past, and the Future. 

§ 1G2. The Second Tenses add second to the 
name of the division. They are called Second 
Present, Second Past, and Second Future. 

Remark. — The names of the tenses as given above, are the most ap- 
propriable that can be adoptetl. They are naturally suggested by the first 
and second root from which they are formed, but what is of more con- 
sequence in the use of them, there is no sacrifice of truth to symmetry. 

§ 163. The Present Tense represents an action 
as now going on; e. g.^, I love; I am loved. 

Remark 1. — This tense is often used to express wliat is 
l.abitii-al or universal; e. g., "Thomas 7*eads to his sister every 
day ;" *' Vice produces misery." 

Remark 2. — It is used in animated narrations, to express 
past events with force and interest as if they were present ; 
\ g., "Cffisar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters 
•taly." 

Remark 3. — This tense is sometimes used instead of the 
Second Present, in speaking of authors long since dead, when 
reference is made to their works which still exist ; e. g., "Vir- 
gil ijnitates Homer.'* 



72 VERBS. — TENSE3. 

Remark 4. — This tense is also used in dependent clauses 
after such words as when, before, if, as soon as, till, and after 
relative pronouns, to express the relative time of a future ac- 
tion ; e. g., " When the mail arrives I shall receive my letter." 

§ 164. The Second Present represents an ac- 
tion as finished in present time; e. g., "Alfred has 
recited this morning ;" " Many excellent works have 
been tvritten this century." 

Remark 1. — This tense cannot be used if the smallest por- 
tion of time has intervened between that which is assumed as 
present, and that in which the event took place. It would be 
incorrect to say, " I have seen him a moment ago." 

Remark 2. — ^This tense may be used when we speak of an 
author long since dead, if the works to which they refer are 
still in existence ; e. g., " Milton has written a noble poem." 

Remark 3. — This tense, as well as the present, is sometimes 
used in dependent clauses to express a future event ; e. g., 
" When I have finished the recitation, I will attend to your 
request." 

Remark 4. — This tense is used to express an act or state 
continued through a period of time reaching to the present ; 
e. g., " Willis has studied grammar six months." 

§ 165. The Past Tense expresses what took 
place in past time ; e. g., '' In the beginning God 
created the heavens." " James wrote yesterday." 

Remark 1. — The time expressed by this tense is regarded 
as entirely past ; however near the present may be, it docs 
not embrace it ; e. g., " I saw James Hampton but a moment 
ago." 



VEEBS. EXERCISES. 78 

Remark 2. — In such expressions, as " I wrote this morning^ 
this week, this year^'' tfcc., the reference is to a point of time 
now entirely past, in these yet unfinished periods. 

Remark 3. — This tense is used to express what was cus- 
tomary in past time ; e. g., " My father attended to his business 
regularly all his life." 

§ 166. The Second Past represents an action 
or event as completed at or before some past time 
referred to; e. g., "I had luritten the letter before 
James called." 

§ 167. The Future represents an action or 
event indefinitely as yet to come ; e. g., " I zvill 
write to James." 

§ 168. The Second Future intimates that an 
action or event will be completed at or before a 
certain time yet future; e. g., ^'I shall have recited 
before ten." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Verbs in the following exercises ; — ^tell the Tense they 
are made in. 

Carthage was founded by Dido. Is H^ry confident of suc- 
cess ] I shall be queen of May. Has Martha read the book ? 
Sorrow is the common lot of man. William listened atten- 
tively. James will have finished the work by noon. Ida was 
walking in the garden. I hope that Edward will not be rash. 
The sun will have set when I reach home. There is a lovely 
cottage on the shore. Do you love country life ? Art is long, 
and time is fleeting. The longest life will soon pass away. 

4 



74 VERBS. — EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

The cataract ^vas in full view. The English language, in 
common with others, has undergone many changes. Phila- 
delphia is a large commercial city. Matilda will be glad to see 
you again. Father was going to the plantation when I met 
him. William Harrison died on the third day of April. The 
battle of Waterloo occurred in the month of June, Mason's 
first visit to Columbia was in company with Indians. When 
the moon appeared, we proceeded. We bow before the good 
and the wicked at the 2:ates of the rio-hteous. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of verb in the 
Present tense ; five containing an example of the Second Pres- 
ent ; five containing an example of the Past ; five containing 
an example of the Second Past ; five containing an example of 
the Future ; five containing an example of the Second Future. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES IN 
THE DIFFERENT MOODS. 

Remark 1. — The Indicative Mood has six tenses. 
Remark 2. — The Subjunctive Mood has the same number 
of tenses as the Indicative. 

(1 .) In conditions or i^ppositions the past sometimes refers to present 
time ; e. g., " If I had paper, I would write to Georgia." In this sense 
the verb implies that the thing supposed docs not exist. The expression, 
" ir I have paper, &c.," leaves it uncertain whether I have it or not. 

(2.) The verb to 6e, in the Singular Number has a separate form in ex- 
pressions of tiii:^ kind, wlien r'^fercnco is made to present time; e. g., *'If 
I were, &c." The Plural has no separate form. 

(3 ) Were is sometimes used instead of would he, or should he, and had^ 
vhon employed as an auxiliarr, instead of would have; e. g., "The insti- 



VERBS. — OBSERVATIONa. 76 

tutions of our patriotic sires were ruined by demagogues if heeded.'* 
" Their fortitude had been laudable, had they resisted to arms." 

(1.) The past tense of other verbs is sometimes, though not oflen, the 
same as were, 

PtEMARK 3. — The Potential Mood lias four tense?. It wants 
the future. 

(1.) The Present denotes possibiliiy, permission, ability^ or necessity to 
perform an act sometimes present, and often future ; e. g., *' Fatlier may 
leave to-day or to-morroivy 

Note. — Here the possibility, permission, ability, or necessity, may be 
regarded as present, but the performance of the act itself is future. 

(2.) The Second Present generally denotes present possibiliiy, necessity, 
&c., that a past act was performed; e. g., "Father must have left, &c." 
It is undeniable that he left. 

(3.) The Past denotes (a) a past possibility, &e. ; e. g., *' I could write 
yesterday." (b) It denotes present possibiliiy, &c., when followed by a 
conditional clause; e. g., "I might go, if I would." (c) It denotes a 
future possibility, &c. ; e. g., '' I shall not go, but if I should, &c." 

(4) The Second Past denotes usually a past possibility, &c., but by no 
means a past completed act, as in the indicative; e. g., "I could have 
pone yesterday, if I had desired." 

Remark 4. — The Imperative Mood has but one tense. It is 
called Present, but from its nature it also has a reference to the 
Future, 

Piemare: 5. — The Infinitive Mood has but two tenses, the 
Present and Past. The Present denotes an indefinite or pro- 
gressive state of an act, the Past, an act or state completed ; 
e. o;., " To write ;" " To he writing ;" " To have written ;" " To 
have been writinof." 

(1 ) The infinitive may be connected with any mood or tense of the 
principal verb. 

(2.) The Present Infinitive denotes a time present with that of the 
principal verb, but not necessarily present with the speaker ; e. g.^ ** I 
intend to write f^ " I intended to write ;^^ "I bad intended to write. ;'^ "2 
thaV ^egin to write," 



76 VERBS. — PARTICIPLES. 

(3.) The Past Infinitive denotes a past act completed at the time de- 
noted by the principal verb ; e. g., " Miss Emma is said to have performed 
well at the concert ; her teacher arranged the music for the occasion." 

PARTICIPLES. 

§ 169. A Participle is a word used to express 
an action or state^ like the verb ; and belongs to a 
noun like an adjective. 

Kemauk. — A Participle, like a verb, denotes an action or 
state ; like the verb it is transitive or intransitive ; when tran- 
sitive it is used in tlie active and passive voices ; but it cannot 
be used to express an affirmation ; e. g., " I saw Thomas study' 
ing his lesson." 

Note. — The Participle has no more claim to be considered 
a separate part of speech than the infinitive mood. In a 
strict etymological sense they are both participles, the one 
participating of an adjective and verb, the other of a noun and 
verb. 

CLASSES OF PARTICIPLES. 

§ 170. Verbs have three Participles; the Pres- 
enty the Past^ and the Compound ; e. g.^ Loving y 
hvedy having loved^ in the Active Voice ; and being 
Jovedy lovedy having been loved^ Passive. 

§ 171. The Present Participle Active ends always in ing. 
In all verbs it has an active signification, and denotes an action 
or state as continuing and in progress; e. g., "Uncle is huild 
ing a summer residence on his plantation.'' 

Remark. — In many verbs the present participle has a passive significa- 
tion ; e. g., " The house was buildmg when the accident occurred." This 



VERBS. - 0B3EH VATIONS. 77 

form of expression is supposed to have liad its ori;^-!ii ia the use of the 
verbal noun after in to express Llie ^aiu-j idea; c. r., '■ i-'urty and hix 
years w;is tliia temple iii building." OUicrs aL;a.a sMp^ose tliat it ou--Lt 
to be regarded as an original idiom of tlie language. Recent writers of 
Bome distinction have endeavored to introduce the forms, '• Tl:e house is 
being built;" "Preparations are bein^- made," but they are by no means 
adopted by the best writers as good English- 

§ 172. The Present Participle Passiv^e has always a passive 
siijnification, but it has the same difference of meanino^ with 
respect to the time or state of an action as the present indi- 
cative passive, 

§ 173. The Past Participle has the same form in both 
voices. In the active voice it belongs equally to transitive and 
intransitive verbs — has alwavs an active sense, and with tlie 
auxiliaries forms the Second Present and Second Past. It is 
never found but thus combined; e. g., "Has loved," "had 
loved." 

In the Passive Voice, it always has a passive signification, 
and with the verb to he as an auxiliary, forms this voice ; e. g., 
" He is loved ;" " He was loved^ 

§ 174. The Compound Participle represents an action or 
state as completed at the time referred to. It has always an 
active signification in the active voice, and a passive, in the 
passive voice ; e. g., " Having finished our task we may play." 
" Our task having been finished we may play." 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — The Participle in ing is often used as a verbal noun hav- 
ing the Nominative and Objective cases. In this cliaraoter, the participle 
»f a transitive verb may still retain the government of the verb; e. g.. 

In keeping his coonmandments, there is great reward," 



78 VERBS. NUMBER AND PERSON. — EXERCISES. 

Remark 2. — When Participles lay aside the idea of time, and simply 
qualify nouns, they become adj actives, ani as such admit of comparison; 
e. g., " George related a most interesting story to the children." 

NUMBER AND PERSON. 

§ 175. Number and Person are forms of the 
verb which show its agreement with the subject. 

§ 17G. Every tense of the verb has two Numbers, the Sin- 
gular and Plural, corresponding to the Singular and Plural of 
nouns and pronouns. The Singular affirms of one, the Plural 
of more than one. 

§ 177. The subject of the verb, in the first person Singular, 
is always /; in the Plural we ; in the second person Singular, 
thou or you ; in the Plural ye or you ; in the third person, the 
subject is the name of any person or thing spoken of, or a pro- 
noun of the third person in its stead ; it may also be an in- 
finitive or clause of a sentence in its stead. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the Number and Person of each of the followmg subjects ; — give 
the Number and Person of each verb. 

Did you attend the lecture last evening ? I hope to find 
the study interesting. Robert listened very attentively. Ma- 
tilda was loved by all. William has read the book you gave 
him, and would like another. The work mentioned was 
printed by J. R. Graves of Nashville. Mary will always do 
what she thinks is right. I hope you will learn to love your 
teacher better. Have you been taught music? When can 
we ride over the farm? The "Observer" is published in New 
York. 



VERBS. — OBSERVATIONS. 79 

Cultivate a love for all that is beautiful. The books that 
sister sent us are full of instruction. Confide we in ourselves. 
Laugh those that can, weep those that may. Let us hope for 
the best. Be it enacted that on and after the first day of 
January next, &c., &c. Did you see that meteor ? What 
shall we do to-day ? Alexander will have learned his lesson by 
the time we wish to leave. The hills were covered with siio 
and ice, a strange sight for the season. The boat sailing on 
yonder lake is propelled by steam. 

" Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm, 
And live the rest, secure from harm." — Pope. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — In solemn style the second person singular of the verb in 
the present tense, is formed by adding -s^ or est to the first. In common 
style it ends like the second person plural. The third person singular is 
formed by adding s or es to the first. 

Note. — Some languages have a peculiar form for every person in both 
numbers ; in English there are no such separate forms. The second per- 
son singular has a form appropriated to itself in all the tenses ; the third 
person singular has a distinct form in the present tense. The present of 
the verb to have retains this form when used as an auxiliary in the second 
present. 

REiiARK 2. — The three persons in the plural are always alike, and with 
the exception of the verb to he, the same as the first person singular. 

Remark 3. — The Imperative Mood has usually only the second person ; 
e. g.. " Go thou." In some languages this mood has also a form for the 
first person plural, and third person singular and plural. A few examples 
of this sort seem to occur in English; e.g., "Rise, my sons." "Be it 
enacted." Many of these cases can be explained by supplying an ellipsis. 



80 VERBS. — CONJUGATION. — FORMS. 



CONJUGATION. 

§ 178. The Conjugation of a Verb is the regu- 
lar arrangement of its voices, moods, tenses, num- 
bers and persons. 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 

§ 179. Transitive Verbs may have four forms: the com- 
mon^ the emphatic^ the progressive^ and the passive ; e. g., 
" I love f "I do love ;" " I arri loving ;" " I am lovedP 

Remark. — The emphatic form is coDfined to the present and past indi- 
cative, and the present imperative. The other forms are extended through 
all the moods and tenses. 

§ 180. Intransitive Verbs may have three forms: the com- 
mon^ the emphatic^ and progressive ; e. g., "I sit ;" " I c?o 
sit ;" " I am sitting^ 

§ 181. The Common form represents an act as indefinite, 
as a custom, or as completed without reference to its progress ; 
e. g., " I paint ;" '' I painted ;" " I have painted!''^ 

§ 182. The Emphatic form is used to express a fact with 
emphasis or force ; e. g., " I do write ;" " I did write^ 

§ 183. The Progressive form represents an action as begun, 
in progress, but not completed ; e. g., " Mary is writing T 

§ 184. The Passive Voice represents the object as being 
acted upon by the agent ; e. g., " Charles was struck by 
John." 

Remark. — To these may bo added the solemn form of the third person 
lingular, present indicative, ending in th or et\ instead of the common in 
F or es. 



VERBS. — PRINCIPAL PARTS. — AUXILIARIES. 81 

§ 185. Tlie Tenses of the verb, inflected without an auxili- 
ary, are called Simple Tenses, those inflected with an auxiliary, 
are called Compound Tenses. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

§ 186. The Principal Parts of a verb are the 

Present Indicative^ the Past Indicative^ and the 

Past Participle. 

§ 187. A Complete verb is one that has all its principal 
parts ; e. g., See., saw^ seen. 

§ 188. A Defective verb is one that has not all the prin- 
cipal parts ; e. g., May^ might ; shall, should, 

AUXILIARIES. 

§ 189. Auxiliaries are short verbs used in con- 
jugating other verbs. They are do^ be^ have^ shally 
willj ma?/ J can^ and inust. Do^ be^ have^ and will 
are also principal verbs. 

CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 





Singular, 






Plural, 






1st Per. 2d Per. 


3d Per. 


1st Per. 


2d Per. 


8d Per. 




/ You 


He 


We 


You 


They 


Pres. 


Am, are, 


is; 


are. 


are. 


are. 


Past. 


Was, were, 


was; 


were, 


were, 


were. 


Pres. 


Do, do. 


does; 


do. 


do. 


do. 


Past. 


Did, did, 


did; 
4* 


did. 


did. 


did. 



82 



VEEBS. — OBSERVATIONS. 





Singular, 






Plural. 






1st Per. 2d Per. 


8d Per. 


1st Per. 


2d Per. 


3d Per. 




/ You 


He 


We 


You 


They 


Pres. 


Have, Lave, 


has; 


have. 


have. 


have. 


Past. 


Had, had, 


had; 


had, 


had, 


had. 



Pres. Will, will, will; will, will, will. 

Past. Would, would, would; would, would, would. 

Pres. Shall, sLall, shall; shall, shall, shall. 

Past. Should, should, should ; should, should, should. 

Pres. May,* may, may; may, may, may. 

Past. Might, might, might; might, might, might. 

Pres. Can, can, can ; can, can, can. 

Past. Could, could, could; could, could, could. 



OBSERYATIONS. 



Remark 1. — The auxiliary do is sometimes added to verbs to express 
energy or positiveness ; e. g., "I do love." It is also used in negative 
and interrogative sentences without emphasis. 

Remark 2. — The verb to le, when used as an auxiliary, connects the 
participle with the subject. It gives no shade of meaning to the parti- 
ciple, it only does what simple inflection would do if it could be em- 
ployed. 

Remark 3. — The use of have as an auxiliary probably originated in its 
being used to express the possession of something represented as the ob- 
ject of an action denoted by the participle ; e. g , "I have money con- 
coaled." By degrees the idea of possession has been dropped, and the 
signification of the participle changed from the passive to the active. 

Remark 4. — Shall and will have two significations: a pi-imary, and 
secondary. Shall, primarily denotes obligation ; e. g., "You shall do it," 
•=- You are under obligation to do it. Will, primarily denotes voliiion, in- 



VERBS. — OBSERVATIONS. 88 

cUnation, purpose, determination ; e. g., " He will go," » He is deter- 
mined to go. 

In the present use of these auxiliaries, 

(1.) Shall and wiU denote a present resolution, volition, inclination^ dc 
termination^ promise, or purpose with reference to a future act; e. g., 
"/resolve that he shall write;" "I will write." 

(2.) They denote simple futurity ; e. g., " It will rain shortly, and we 
shall be overtaken in the storm." 

Remark 5. — It would be a mistake to suppose, as is sometimes done, 
that the Auxiliaries are mere inventions, introduced into the language for 
the purpose of making out the necessary forms. There is abundant evi- 
dence showing that originally they were independent verbs ; and that the 
verbs following them were in the infinitive mood, to being understood. 
The verb shall meant originally ** to be obliged ;" and was followed by an 
infinitive. "They shall to do it," meant, "They are obMged to do it." 
The sign of the infinitive to was omitted, just as it is now after many other 
verbs; e. g., "They need not (to) do it." "I saw him (to) do it." In 
like manner all the compound tenses may b3 analyzed. This analysis, and 
the study of the proper force of the auxiliaries by themselves, is impor- 
tant, as aSbrding the best clue to the true meaning and use of the various 
moods and tenses. 

On the other hand, it would be a mistake, because the compound forms 
may be analyzed, and traced to original independent elements, to deny 
their present existence as compounds, and assert, as some grammarians 
have done recently, that there are but two tenses in English, the Present 
and the Fast Their object is simplification; at first sight they seem to 
have accomplished this purpose, for apparently they despatch the whole 
verb— mood, tenses, and all — in a single sweeping paragraph. But in the 
end they leave the pupil more to learn, in detached and unconnected par 
eels, than he had under the systematic and orderly arrangement of former 
writers. They give him the simplicity of the monosyllabic Chinese, in 
exchange for the more complex forms and combination of the Greek 



84 VERBS. — CONJUGATION. 

CONJUaATION OF THE REaULAR VERB "TO LOYE." 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARia 

Present, Love ; Past, Loved ; Past Participle, Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

singular. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. You love,* 2. You love, 

3. He loves; 3. They love. 

Past Tense, 

Singular. • Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. You loved, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

Future Tense, 

Signs — shall orf will. 
Singular, Plural, 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. You shall or will love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love ; 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Present, 

Sign — have, 
singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. You have loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved; 3. They have loved, 

* The pronoun you represents nouns either of the singular or plural 
number, but requires the verb to be in the plural number, 
f The pupil should bo accustomed to use either auxiliary. 



VERBS. — CONJUGATION. 85 

Second Past. 

Sign — had. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. You had loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

Second Future, 

Signs — shall or will have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. You shall have loved, 2. You shall have loved, 

3. He shall have loved ; 3. They shall have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Remark. — This mood is the same as the Indicative, except 
that it is preceded by a conjunction implying contingency; 
e. g., ''If I lover 

g^W In the Future the auxiliary is often omitted; e. g., 
** If James write, I will come." 

Present Tense. 

singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If you love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he loves; 3. If they love. 

Past Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. KI loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If you love^, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved. 



86 



VERBS.^-^eO]^JUGATION. 



Future Tense, 



Singular. 

1. If I shall love, 

2. If you shall love, 

3. If he shall love ; 



Plural. 

1. If we shall love, 

2. If you shall love, 

3. If they shall love. 



Sincnilar, 



Second Present, 

Plural. 



1. If I have loved, 

2. If you have loved, 

3. If he has loved ; 



Singular. 

1. If I had loved, 

2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved ; 



1. If we have loved, 

2. If you have loved, 

3. If they have loved. 

Second Past, 

Plural. 

1. If we had loved, 

2. If you had loved, 

3. If they had loved. 



Second Future, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 

2. If you shall have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, 

3. If he shall have loved; 3, If they shall have loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Signs — may^ can^ or must. 
Singular. PluraL 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. You may love, 2. You may love, 
8. He may love; 3. They may love. 



VERBS. — GON JUG^ATION. 87 

Past Tense, 

Signs — might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. You might love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Second Present, 

Signs — may, can, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. You may have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

Second Past. 

Signs — might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. You might have loved, 2. You might have loved, 
8. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or Love you ; 2. Love, or Love you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, To love. 
Past, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Lovinor. 
Past, Loved. 

Compound, Having loved. 



88 VERBS. — CONJUGATION. — SYNOPSIS. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present I love. 

Past. I loved. 

Future, I shall love. 

Second Present. I have loved. 

Second Past, I had loved. 

Second Future. I shall have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. If I love. 

Past. If I loved. 

Future. If I shall love. 

Second Present. If I have loved. 

Second Past. If I had loved. 

Second Future. If I shall have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. I may love. 

Past. I might love. 

Second Present. I may have loved. 

Second Past. I might have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, 

Love, or Love you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To love. 

Past. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving, 

Past. Loved. 

Compound. Having loved. 



VERBS.— CONJUGATION. — QUESTIONS. 89 

EXERCISES. 

Give the Mood, Tense, Person and Number, of the Yerbs in the fol- 
lowing exercises : 

Model. — " You love." It is made in the Indicative Present, Second 
Singular or Plural. 

**rie loves." It is made in the Indicative Present, Third, Singular. 

We love. I loved. You have loved. He loves. We have 
loved. I will love. They have loved. You shall have loved. 
He may love. If I love. If I loved. If I shall love. You 
love. Love. To love. He may love. We had loved. If 
you love. You have loved. He could have loved. If I may 
love. We can love. We should love. I can love. You 
loved. He will love. Loved. Lovino*. To have loved. 
Having loved. Would you love ? You should love. He has 
loved. They will love. We had loved. We love. I have 
loved. He had loved. If he will love. You loved. If he 
has loved. We might liave loved. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the Conjugation of a Verb ? 

How many forms have verbs in the Active Voice ? 

What is said of the auxiliary Do ? 

What are the principal parts of the verb Love ? 

Give a Synopsis of the Tenses of the Indicative. 

of the Subjunctive. 

of the Potential. 

Give the Imperative. 

What is the Present Infinitive ? 

the Present Participle? 

the Past ? The Compound ? 



90 



VERBS. — CONJUaATION. 



CONJUaATIOI^ OF THE IRREGULAR VERB *' TO BE." 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, A^n ; Past, Was ; Past Participle, Been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Plural. 

1. We are, 

2. You are, 

3. They are. 

Past Tense, 

Plural. 

1. "We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 

Future Tense, 



Singular. 

1. I am, 

2. You are, 

3. He is ; 

Singular. 

1. I was, 

2. You were, 

3. He was; 



Singular. 

1. I shall be, 

2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be ; 



Singular. 

1. I have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 



Singular. 



1. I had been, 

2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 



Signs — shall or will. 
Plural. 

1. We shall be, 

2. You shall be, 

3. They shall be. 

Second Present, 

Sign — have. 

Plural. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 

Second Past, 

Sign — had. 

Plural. 

1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 

3. They had been. 



VERBS. — CONJUGATION. 



91 



Second Future, 

Signs — shall or will have. 
Sinsnilar. Plural. 

1. I shall liavo been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. You shall liave been, 2. You shall have been, 

3. He shall have been ; 3. They shall have been. 



Singular. 

1. If I am, 

2. If you are, 

3. If he is ; 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Plural. 

1. If we are, 

2. If you are, 

3. If they are. 



Singular. 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be, 

3. If he be ; 



Ancient Present, 

Plural. 

1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 



Singular. 

1. If I was, 

2. If vou were, 

3. If he was; 



singular. 

1. If I were, 

2. If vou were, 
J5. If he were ; 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 

Hypothetical, 

Plural. 

1. If we were, 

2. If vou were, 

3. If they were. 



Remark. — This form is still used by many good vmters to express a 
supposition or hypothesis, but is gradually going into disuse. 



92 VERBS. — CONJUaATION. 



The remaining tenses of this mood are the same as tlie 
Indicative, with a conjunction implying contingency prefixed ; 
e, g., '' If he shall he lovedP 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Signs — may, can, or must. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Past Tense, 

Signs — migM^ could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 2. You might be. 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 

Second Present. 

Signs — may, can, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Second Past, 

Signs — might, could, would, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. You might have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 



V 



VERB3. — CONJUGATION. — SYNOPSIS. 98 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or Be you. 2. Be, or Be you, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, To be. 

Past To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PresenU Being. 

Past, Been. 

Compound, Having been. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, I am. 

Past, I was. 

Future, I shall be. 

Second Present, I have been. 

Second Past, I had been. 

Second Future, I shall have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present, If I am. 

Past, If I was. 

Future, If I shall be. 

Second Present, If I have been. 

Second Past, If I had been. 

Second Future, If I shall have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present, I may be. 

Past, I might be. 

Second Present, I may have been. 

Second Past, I might have been. 



fl4 VERBS.— CONJUGATION.— EXERCISES. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be, or Be you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be. 

Past. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. 

Past. Been, 

Compound. Having been. 

EXERCISES. 

Give the Mood, Tense, Person and Number of the Yerbs in the fol- 
lowing exercises. 

Model. — "He is." It is made in the Indicative Present, Third 
Singular. 

I am. I was. He is. We were. They are. You have 

been. He has been. They have been. They will have been. 

He was. You had been. I shall have been. You may be. 

He must be. If I am. It I have been. You could be. He 

might have been. He may have been. Be. To be. Being. 

To have been. I will be. If they be. He must have been. 

If I be. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are the principal parts of to he ? 

Give a Synopsis of the Tenses of the Indicative. 

Subjunctive. Potential. 

What is the Imperative Mood ? 

the Infinitive Present ? 

Past ? Present Participle ? 

the Past ? The Compound ? 



VERBS. — CONJUGATION. 



95 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

PASSIVE VOICE. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Am loved ; Past, Was loved ; Past Participle, Loved. 



Singular. 

1. I am loved, 

2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 



Singular. 

1. I was loved, 

2. You were loved, 
8. He was loved ; 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are loved, 

2. You are loved, 

3. They are loved. 

Past Tense, 

Plural. 

1. We were loved, 

2. You were loved, 

3. They were loved. 



Future Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. You shall be loved, 2. You shall be loved, 

3. He shall be loved; 3. They shall be loved. 

Second Present, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. You have been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Second Past, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. You had been loved, 2. You Lad been loved, 

3. He baa been loved ; 3. They bad been loved. 



96 



VERBS. CONJUGATION. 



Second Future. 

Singular. riural. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. You shall have been loved, 2. You shall have been loved, 

3. He shall have been loved ; 3. They shall have been loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I am loved, 

2. If you are loved, 

3. K he is loved ; 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we are loved, 

2. If you are loved, 
8. If they are loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I was loved, 

2. If you were loved, 

3. If he was loved ; 



Past Tense, 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved, 

2. If you were loved, 

3. If they were loved. 



Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. If I shall be loved, 1. If we shall be loved, 

2. If you shall be loved, 2. If you shall be loved, 

3. If he shall be loved ; 3. If they shall be loved. 

Second Present. 



Singular. 

1. If I have been loved, 

2. If you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved; 



Plural. 

1. If we have been loved, 

2. If you have been loved, 

3. If they have been loved. 



Second Past. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved, 1. If we had been loved, 

2. If you had been loved, 2. If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved ; 3. If they had been loved. 



VERBS. — CONJUaATION. 97 

Second Future. 

/ Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been loved, 1. If we shall have been loved, 

2. If you shall have been loved, 2. If you shall have been loved, 

3. If he shall have been loved ; 3. If they shall have been loved 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. You may be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be love<^ 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. You might be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

8. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

Second Present. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. You may have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 
.^, He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. 

Second Past. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. You might have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be loved, or Be you loved. 2. Be loved, or Be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be loved. 

Past. To have been loved. 

5 



98 VERBS. — CONJUaATION. —SYNOPSIS. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. 

Past Loved. 

Compound, Having been loved, 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present I am loved. 

Pa^t, I was loved. 

Future, I shall be loved. 

Second Present. I have been loved. 

Second Past, I had been loved. 

Second Future, I shall have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. If I am loved. 

Past, If I was loved. 

Future. If I shall be loved. 

Second Present. If I have been loved. 

Second Past, If I had been loved. 

Second Future. If I shall have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD, 

Present. I may be loved. 

Past. I might be loved. 

Second Present, I mav have been loved. 

Second Past, I might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be loved, or Be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be loved. 

PiUt. To have been loved 



VERBS.— -GO:yJUaATION. — QUESTIONS. 9* 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Bcinc: loved. 

Past, Loved. 

Compound. Having been loved. 

EXERCISES. 

Give the Mood, Tense, Person and Number, of the Verbs in tlie fol- 
lowing exercises. 

Model. — "I was loved." It is made in the Indicative Past, First 
Singular. 

I am loved. You have been loved. He shall bo loved. 
We were loved. You are loved. You had been loved. They 
shall have been loved. They are loved. If he has been loved. 
He shall be loved. You might be loved. He may be loved. 
You can be loved. They may be loved. He could have been 
loved. Be you loved. I was loved. To be loved. Being 
loved. You are loved. Be loved. To have been loved. 
Having been loved. If you were loved. They might be loved. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are the pj-incipal parts of the verb to he loved? 
Give a Synopsis of the Tenses of the Indicative. 

the Subjunctive. the Potential. 

Give the Imperative. 

the Present Infinitive. 

the Past Infinitive. 

What is the Present Participle ? 

the Past ? ' the Compound ? 

Give the Indicative Present, Second Sinofular. 

the Past. the Future. 

the Second Present. Second Past. 

Second Future, ic, <tc. 



IQO VERBS. — PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

§ 190. The Progressive Form of the Verb is 
inflected by prefixing the verb to be^ through all 
its moods and tenses^ to the Present Participle. 

TO WRITE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SIMPLE VERB. 

Present, Write ; Past, Wrote ; Past Participle, Written. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am writing, 1. We are writing, 

2. You are writing, 2. You are writing, 

3. He is writing 3. They are writing. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was writing, 1. We were writing, 

2. You were writing, 2. You were writing, 

3. He was writing; 3. They were writing. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be writing, 1. We shall be writing, 

2. You shall be writing, 2. You shall be writing, 

3. He shall be writing ; 3. They shall be writing. 

Second Present. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been writing, 1. We have been writing, 

2. You have been writing, 2, You have been writing, 

3. He has been writing; 3. They have been writing. 



VEBBS. — PR0aRE33IVE TORM. 



101 



Second Past, 

rUiral. 

1. We bad been writinii:, 

2. You bad been writino:. 
3. He bad been writinf^ ; 3. Tbev bad been writinor. 



singular. 

1. I bad been writing, 

2. You bad been writing, 



Second Future. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall bave been writing, 1. We shall have been writing 

2. You shall bave been writ- 2. You shall have been writ- 



^ng» 



ing, 



^ He shall bave been writ- 3. They shall have been writ* 



»ng; 



ing. 



Bingnlar. 

1. If am writing, 

2. If you are writing, 

3. If he is writing ; 



Singular. 

1. If I was writing, 
*?. If you Avere writing, 
8. If be was writing ; 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

riural. 

1. If we are writing, 

2. If you are writing, 

3. If they are writing. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 



1. If we were writing, 

2. If you were writing, 

3. If they were writing. 

Future Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall be writing, 

2. If you shall be writing, 

3. If he shall be writing; 



Plural. 

1. If we shall be writing, 



2. If you shall be writing, 

3. If they shall be writing. 

Second Present. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been writing, 1. If we bave been writing, 

2.Jf you bave been writing, 2. If you have been writing, 
3. If he has been writing; 3. If they have been writing. 



102 VEEBS.— PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

* Second Past, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If I liad been writing, 1. If we had been writing, 

2. If you had been writing, 2. If you had been writing, 

3. If he had been writing ; 3. If they had been writing. 





Second Future, 




Singular. 


riural. 


1. 


If. I shall have been writ- 


1. If we shall have been writ- 




ing, 


ing, 


2. 


If you shall have been 


2. If you shall have been writ- 




writing. 


ing, 


3. 


If he shall have been 


3. Ifthey shall have been writ- 




writing ; 


ing. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be writing, 1. We may be writing, 

2. You may be writing, 2. You may be writing, 

3. He may be writing ; 3. They may be writing. 

Past Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be writing, 1. We might be writing, 

2. You might be writing, 2. You might be writing, 

3. He might be writing ; 3. They might be writing. 

Second Present, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been writ- 1. We may have been writ- 

ing, ing, 

2. You may have been writ- 2. You may have been writ 

ing, ing, 

3. He may have been writ- 3, They may have been writ- 

ing; ing. 



VERBS. — PROaRESSIVE FORM. 10^ 

Second Past, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been writ 1. We might have been writ- 

ing, ing, 

2. You might have been 2. You might have been writ- 

writing, ing, 

3. He might have been writ- 3. They might have been writ- 

ing ; ing. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be you writing. 2. Be you writing, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be writing. 

Past. To have been writing. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, ___ Writing. 

Past, . 

Compound. Having been writing. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. I am writing. 

Past. I was writing. 

Future. I shall be writing. 

Second Present. I have been writing. 

Second Past, I had been writincr. 

Second Future. I shall have been writing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. If I am writing. 

Past. If I was writing. 

Future. If I shall be writing. 



104 VERBS.' — INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVB. 

Second Present. If I have been writing. 
Second Past, If I had been writing. 
Second Future. If I shall have been writing. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present, I may be writing. 

Past. I might be writing. 

Second Present. I may have been writing. 

Second Past. I might have been writing. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be you writing. 

INFINITIV2 MOOD. 

Present. To be writing. 

Past. To have been writing. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. Writing. 

Past. . 

Compound. Having been writing. 

INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE 

FORMS. 

§ 191. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by 
placing the subject after it, or the first auxiliary ; 
e.g., "Lovestthou?" "Do I love T 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, Do I love ? 

Past, Did I love ? 

Future. Shall I love f 



VERBS. — NEGATIVE FORM. 105 

Second Present, Have I loved ? 
Second Past. Had I loved ? 

Second Future, Shall I have loved ? 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. May I love ? 

Past. Might I love ? 

Second Present, May I have loved ? 

Second Past, Might I have loved ? 

Remark. — ^The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can 
not have the interrogative form. 

§ 192. A verb is conjugated negaiively^ by 
placing the adverb not after it^ or after the first 
auxiliary. The negative adverb should be placed 
before the infinitive and participles ; e. g., " I love 
not ;' or '' I do not love!' 

N SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. I do not love. 

Past. I did not love. 

Future. I will not love. 

Second Present. I have not loved. 

Second Past. I had not loved. 

Second Future. I shall not have loved, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present, If I do not love. 

Past. If I did not love. 

Future* If I shall not love. 

6* 



106 VERBS. — FORMATION Of THE TENSES. 

Second Present. If I have not loved. 
Second Past. If I had not loved. 
Second Future. If I shall not have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. I can not love. 

Past. I might not love. 

Second Present. I may not have loved. 

Second Past. I might not have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Love not, or Do you not love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, Not to love. 

Past, Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Not loving. 

Past. Not loved. 

Compound. Not having loved. 

Remark. — The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the 
present and past tenses the compound or emphatic form is more common. 

FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 

§ 193. A Verb consists of two parts ; — the 
Booty and Prefix. 

§ 194. There are also two special roots, from 
, which, by the addition of certain prefixes, the verb 
is regularly formed. 

Remark. — The title " Formation of the Tenses" relates only to the fitsX 
person singular. 



VERBS. — INDICATIVE MOOD. 107 

§ 195. The First Root is the simple form of 
the verb, and is ahvays the same as the First Per- 
son Singular of the Indicative Present; e. g.. Love, 
paint. 

§ 196. The Second Root is formed from the 
first by the addition of d when it ends in a vowel, 
and ed when a consonant ; e. g., Love, loved ; 
paint, painted. 

Remark. — In Regular Verbs the Second Root is always the same as 
the Indicative Past ; in Irregular Verbs the Second Root must be learnf^d 
from the list. It is always the same as the Past Participle. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

§ 197. The Indicative Present is tlie First Root; e. g., 
Love^ paint. 

§ 198. The Indicative Past is the Second Hoot; e. g^ 
Loved ^ painted. 

Remark. — In Irregular Verbs this tense must be learned from the list. 

§ 199. The Future is formed by prefixing its sign shall or 
will to the First Root ; e. g., Love, shall or will love. 

§ 200. The Second Present is formed by prefixing its sign 
have to the Second Root; e. g., Loved; have loved. 

§ 201. The Second Past is formed by prefixing its sign had 
to the Second Root ; e. g., Loved ; had loved. 

§ 202. The Second Future is formed by prefixing its sign 
shall or will have to the Second Root ; e. g., Loved ; shall or 
will have loved. 

Remark. — In the formation of the second tenses, the auxiliary prefix 
denotes the time of the action ; — the root, its completion. 



108 VERBS.— MOODS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

§ 203. The tenses of the Subjimctive are the same as the 
Indicative; but they are always preceded by a conjunction 
implying contingency ; e. g., If I love^ If I have loved^ &c., &c. 

Remark. — In the Future the auxiliary is often omitted j e. g., ^^ If 1 
love^''^ that is, ^^Ifl shall love." 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

§ 204, The Present is formed by prefixing its sign may, 
can, or must, to the First Root ; e. g., Love ; may love. 

§ 205. The Past is formed by prefixing its sign mighty 
could, would, or should to the First Root ; e. g., Love ; might 
love, 

§ 206. The Second Present is formed by prefixing its sign 
may, can, or must have to the Second Root ; e. g., Loved ; may 
have loved. 

§ 207. The Second Past is formed by prefixing its sign 
might, could, would, or should have to the Second Root ; e. g., 
Loved ; might have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

§ 208. This Mood is always the same as the First Root ; 
e. g., Love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

§ 209. The Present is formed by prefixing its sign to to 
the First Root ; e. g., Love ; to love. 

§ 210. The Past is formed by prefixing its sign to have to 
the Second Root ; e. g., Loved ; to have loved. 



VERBS. —PARTICIPLES.-— EXERCISES. 10& 



PARTICIPLES. 

§ 211. The Present Participle is formed by annexing ing 
to the last consonant of the First Root ; e. g., Love ; lov- 
ing. 

§ 212. The Past Participle is the same as the Second 
Root ; e. g., Loved, 

§ 213. The Compound Participle is formed by prefixing its 
sign having to the Second Root ; e. g., Loved ; naving loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

§ 214. The Tenses of this Voice are formed by annexing 
the Second Root to the verb to he in all its moods, tenses, num- 
bers and persons. 

JIXERCISES. 

Point out the Verbs ; — tell whether regular or irregular, transitive or 
intransitive ; give the Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number and Forma- 
tion. 

Model. — "God created the world." " Created*^ is a verb, regular, 
transitive ; it is made in the active voice, indicative past, third singular. 
It is formed from the first root by annexing d ; create, created. 

Pupils should be taught to parse correctly. Much depends 
on starting right. What part of speech is man ? Minnie has 
written her composition. Thomas is walking in the garden. 
Messrs. Shields and Smith have dissolved partnership. Charles 
has carefully prepared his recitation. We were astonished at 
the intelligence of the lad. To command and obey are dif- 
ferent things. I might have been vexed at the time. Elo- 
quence is to be looked for only in free states. Liberty is the 
nurse of true genius, it animates the spirit, and iavigorates tha 



110 VERBS. — EXERCISES. 

hopes of man ; it excites honorable emulation, and a desire to 
excel in every art. Go, instruct and reclaim the ignorant. 

An orator should not put forth all his strength at the begin- 
ning, but should rise, and grow upon us as his discourse ad- 
vances. Passionate reproofs are like medicine given scalding 
hot. The force of language consists in raising complete images, 
which have the effect to transport the reader, as by magic, into 
the very place of the important action, and to convert him, as 
it were, into a spectator, beholding every thing that passes. 
The freedom of choice is essential to happiness; because, that 
is not our own which is imposed upon us. 

In the following exercises change the verb to the past, future, second 
present, second past, second future. 

Model. — ""We think differently on the subject" "We thought dif- 
ferently on the subject," "We will think," &c. 

Robert owns the book. I know all the particulars. We 
depend on your assistance. Mary is finishing the screen. John 
is going to town. It is growing late. William submits like a 
good fellow. The woodman is cutting down the tree. Jane 
is doing the work. Boys love play. The general commands 
the army. I believe what John told me. Teachers like dili- 
gent pupils. Important events have occurred in this country. 
William saw it before John. Irving wrote the history of 
Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America. Men wor- 
ship God. Industry is conducive to contentment. Pupils 
recite lessons. Anger promotes hatred. Physicians cure the 
sick. Mother esteems her friends. Your orchard produces 
fine fruit. William the Conqueror defeats Harold. 

Samuel's fiither lives in the city of New York. Spenser the 
poet lived in England. Sister Phebe paints flowers for the 
children. William's dog caught the thief breaking into the 
bouse. We inhabit a most beautiful country. The king's 



VERB3. — MODEL FOR PARSING. HI 

resiornation astonished the world. Father doubts the man's 
integi'ity. The good of the country was regarded by the 
citizens. The officers were chosen by the little band. 

Corrcot the errors in the following sentences, and give the rule. 
Model. — "The wind has blew down the corn." 

Corrected. — "The wind has bloivn down the corn." — The second tenses 
prefix the auxiliary sign to the second root. 

Robert and William have did the task. The sun had arose 
before we left. Sister Mary has saw my new silk. The gentle- 
man that purchased a ticket has drew a blank. My brother 
has came from Charleston. Have you broke William's knife ? 
Henry has tore his book. The child was forsook by its parents. 
Having slew the enemy they returned. The bank was broke 
open last night. The package was stole from the car. The 
bird had flew to its nest. The dog was give away before we 
came. Miss Amanda has grew very tall. He begun well but did 
not continue as he began. After the letter had came, I found 
that it was badly wrote, that it could not be read. A sad mis- 
fortune has befell him. The cattle were drove to the pasture 
thif morning. 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 

In parsing a Verb, — 

1. Give the part of speech, (why?) 

2. Tell whether it is regular or irregular, (why ?) 

3. Transitive or intransitive, (why ?) 

4. Principal parts. 

6. Tell the voice and form, (why ?) 
6. Mood, (why ?) 



112 VERBS.— EXERCISES. 

7. Tense, (why?) 

8. Person, (why ?) 

9. Number, (why ?) 

10. Construction and rule. • 

Remark. — If the verb is in the iaianitive, instead of giving the number, 
person, and inflection, give the construction and the rule. If the form is 
a participle, tell what kind, conjugate the veib from which it is derived, 
give the construction and rule. 



X 



EXEECISES. 



Parse the Yerbs in the following exercises. 

Model. — " Piety promotes happiness." " Promotes''' is a Yerb, Regu- 
lar, Transitive. Present promote, Past promoted, Past Part, promoted. It 
is made in the Active Yoice, Indicative Present, Third Singular, and 
agrees with its subject "P^'e^y," according to 

Rule II. — A verb must agTce with its subject in number and person. 

"Sallie can play with Hettie." " Can play^'' is a Yerb, Regular, Intran- 
sitive. Present play. Past played, Past Part, played. It is made in the 
Potential Present, Third Singular, and agrees with its subject, " SalUe'^ 
according to 

Rule II. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

*' America was discovered by Columbus." " Was discovej-ed''' is a Yerb, 
Regular, Transitive. Present discover, Pa^t discovered. Past Part, dis- 
covered. It is made in the Passive Yoice, Indicative Present, Third Sin- 
gular, and agrees with its subject, " America^'''' according to 

Rule II. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"I love to see a pleasant day." " To 5ee" is a Yerb, Irregular, Tran- 
sitive. Present see, Past sav\'", Past Part. seea. It is made in the Infini- 
tive Present, and limits the verb love according to 

Rule XII. — The Infinitive Mood is used to limit a verb, noun, or ad- 
jective. 

** John is reading the book his sister gave him." " Is reading^'' is a 
Yerb, Irregular, Transitive, Progressive Form. Present read, Past read, 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 113 

Past Pari. read. It is made in the Active Yoicc, Indicative Present, 
Third Singular, and agrees with its subject "t/o/m" according to 

Rule II. — A verb must agree, &c., &a 

" Has Samuel come ?" " Has cojne''^ is a Yerb, Irregular, Intransitive 
(conjugated interrogatively,) &c., &c. 

Robert found the knife on the floor. Tlie orchard bears fine 
fruit. Paradise Lost was written by Milton. Mary loves to 
tell the truth. Did you lose your umbrella yesterday ? If 
you wish to go I will accompany you. Do you expect to visit 
liome soon ? The fox was concealed in the tree, and could not 
be found. The retreat of the Greeks was conducted very skill- 
fully. The plot was discovered before it was consummated. That 
book was written by my friend. Be advised by your friends 
I should not be surprised to find James there. Determine to 
perform what you undertake. I hope to hear from home when 
the mail arrives. 

I shall be compelled to leave shortly. You will be sick, if 
you eat that fruit. Robert might have improved, if he would. 
Take heed, lest any man deceive you. The birds are singing 
sweetly in the field near the woods. This letter was written 
by George. Having been elected to the office, he will enter 
upon its duties in a few days. Maggie was found reading in 
the parlor. Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning night's 
blue arch. She lives, loving all, and loved by all. Your horse 
steps lightly ; he is a remarkably fine animal, and can pace 
very fast. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§ 215. An Irregular Verb is one that does not 
form its second root by the addition of d or ed to 
the first; e. g., Begin, begun. 



114 VERBS. OBSERVATIONS, — IRREGULAR VERBS. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Regular verbs form their second root by the addition c^ d 
when the verb ends in a vowel, and ed when a consonant. The final con- 
sonant of the verb is sometimes doubled (as in dropped) and final y 
changed into i (as in cried) according to the rules of spelling in such cases. 
The verb to hear adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 

Remark 2. — When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes 
improperly substituted for ed, making the Past and Past Participle Irregu- 
lar in spelling when they are not so in sound, as distresi for distressed. 
In such cases the regular orthography is preferable. 

Remark 3. — When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substi- 
tution of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound as well as in writing. 
Poets may be indulged in such irregularities, but they are inadmissible in 
good writers and speakers. 

Remark 4. — The simple irregular verbs in English are about one hun- 
dred and ten, and are nearly all monosyllables. They are derived from 
the Saxon, and for the most part are also irregular in that language. They 
might be embraced in some five or six conjugations, distinguished by some 
change or modification of the vowel in the formation of the second root, 
but such a division would be of little practical utility. 

A LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Verbs marked r admit of a regular form. 
Present. Past. Past Part. 

Abide, Abode, Abode. 

Am, Was, Been. 

Awake, Awoke, (r.) Awaked. 

Dear (to bring fortb). Bore, Born. 

Bear (to carry). Bore, Borne. 

Begin, Began, Begun. 

Bend, Bent, Bent. 

Bereave, Bereft, (r.) Bereft, (r.) 

Beseech, Besought, Besought. 



VERBS. — LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



115 



Present 




Past 


Past Part 


Bid, 




Bid or Bade, 


Bidden. 


Bind, 




Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 




Bit, 


Bitten or Bit, 


Bleed, 




Bled, 


Bled. 


Blow, 




Blew, 


Blown. 


Break, 




Broke, 


Broken. 


Breed, 




Bred, 


Bred. 


Bring, 




Brought, 


Brouofht. 


Build, 




Built, 


Built. 


Burst, 




Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 




Bought, 


Bought. 


Cast, 




Cast, 


Cast. 


Catch, 




Caught, 


Caught. 


Chide, 




Chid, 


Chidden or Chid. 


Choose, 




Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave (to 


' stick), r^ 


r 




Cleave (to 


' split), 


Clove or Cleft, 


Cleft or Cloven, 


Cling, 




Clung, 


Clung. 


Clothe, 




Clothed, 


Clad, (r.) 


Come, 




Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 




Cost, 


Cost. 


CroWj^ 




Crew, (r.) 


Crowed. 


Creep, 




Crept, 


Crept. 


Cut, 




Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


Durst, 


Durst. 


Dare (to challenge), 


^", 




Deal, 




Dealt, (r.) 


Dealt, (r.) 


Dig, 




Dug, (r.) 


Dug. (r.) 


Do, 




Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 




Drew, 


Drawn. 


Drive, 




Drove, 


Driven. 



116 



VERBS.— LIST OP THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present, 


Past 


tast Part. 


Drink, 


Drank, 


Drunk. 


Dwell, 


Dwelt, (r.) 


Dwelt, (r.) 


Eat, 


Eat or Ate, 


Eaten. 


Fall, 


Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 


Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 


Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 


Fought, 


Fought. 


Find, 


Found, 


Found. 


Flee, 


Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 


Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 


Flew, 


Flown. 


Forget, 


Forgot, 


Forgotten or Forgot. 


Forsake, 


Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 


Froze, 


Frozen. 


Get, 


Got, 


Got. 


Gild, 


Gilt, (r.) 


Gilt, (r.) 


Gird, 


Girt, (r.) 


Girt, (r.) 


Give, 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 


Went, 


Gone. 


Grave, 


Graved, 


Graven. 


Grind, 


Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 


Grew, 


Grown. 


Have, 


Had, 


Had. 


Hang, 


Hung, 


Hung. 


Hear, 


Heard, 


Heard. 


Hew, 


Hewed, 


Hewn, (r.) 


Hide, 


Hid, 


Hidden or Hid. 


Hit, 


Hit, 


Hit. 


Hold, 


Held, 


Held. 


Hurt, 


Hurt, 


Hurt. 


Keep, 


Kept, 


Kept. 



VERBS. - LIST OF THE IBEEOULAR VERBS. 



117 



Present 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Knit, 


I^Jlit, 


Knit. 


Kneel, 


Knelt, (r.) 


Knelt, (r.) 


Know, 


Knew, 


Known. 


Lade, 


Laded, 


Laden. 


Lay, 


Laid, 


Laid. 


Lead, 


Led, 


Led. 


Leave, 


Left, 


Left. 


Lend, 


Lent, 


Lent. 


Lie (to 


lie down), Lay, 


Lain. 


Load, 


Loaded, 


Laden. 


Lose, 


Lost, 


Lost. 


Make, 


Made, 


Made. 


Mean, 


Meant, 


Meant 


Meet, 


Met, 


Met. 


Mow, 


Mowed, 


Mown, (r.) 


Pay, 


Paid, 


Paid. 


Pen (tc 


> enclose). Pent, (r.) 


Pent, (r.) 


Put, 


Put, 


Put. 


Read, 


Read, 


Read. 


Kid, 


Rid, 


Rid. 


Kend, 


Rent, 


Rent. 


Ride, 


Rode, 


Ridden or Eii 


Ring, 


Rung, 


Rung. ' 


Rise, 


Rose, 


Risen. 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Riven. 


Run, 


Ran, 


Run. 


Saw, 


Sawed, 


Sawn. 


Say, 


Said, 


Said. 


See, 


Saw, 


Seen. 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Sought. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


Sold. 



us 



VKEBS. — LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS, 



Present. 


Past. 




Past Part. 


Send, 


Sent, 




Sent. 


Set, 


Set, 




Set. 


Shake, 


Shook, 




Shaken. 


Shape, 


Shaped, 




Shaped or Shapen. 


Shave, 


Shaved, 




Shaven, (r.) 


Shear, 


Sheared, 




Shorn, (r.) 


Shed, 


Shed, 




Shed. 


Show, 


Showed, 




Shown, (r.) 


Shine, 


Shone, {r.] 


1 


Shone, (r.) 


Shoe, 


Shod, 




Shod. 


Shoot, 


Shot, 




Shot. 


Shrink, 


Shrunk or 


Shrank, 


Shrunk. 


Shred, 


Shred, 




Shred. 


Shut. 


Shut, 




Shut. 


Sing, 


Sung or Sang, 


Sung. 


Slink, 


Slunk, 




Slunk. 


Slit, . 


Slit, 




Slit, (r.) 


Smite, 


Smote, 




Smitten. 


Sow, 


Sowed, 




Sown. 


Speak, 


Spoke, 




Spoken. 


Speed, 


Sped, 




Sped. 


Spill, 


Spilt, 




Spilt. 


Spread, 


Spread, 




Spread. 


Spring, 


Sprung or 


Sprang, 


Sprung. 


Stand, 


Stood, 




Stood. 


Steal, 


Stole, 




Stolen. 


Stick, 


Stuck, 




Stuck. 


Sting, 


Stung, 




Stung. 


Stride, 


Strode or i 


Strid, 


Stridden. 


Strike, 


Struck, 




Struck or Stricken. 


Strive, 


Strove, 




Striven. 



VERBS. — LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



119 



Present. 

String, 

Strow or 

Strew, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Ti'ead, 

AVax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 



\ 



Past. 


Past Part 


Strung, 


Strung. 


S trowed or ) 
Strewed, ) 


Strewn or Strowed, 


Strewed. 


Swore, 


Sworn. 


Sweat, 


Sweat. 


Swam or Swum, 


Swum. 


Swung, 


Swung. 


Took, 


Taken. 


Taught, 


Taught. 


Tore, 


Tore. 


Told, 


Told. 


Thought, 


Thought. 


Throve, 


Thriven. 


Threw, 


Thrown. 


Thrust, 


Thrust. 


Trod, 


Trodden. 


Waxed, 


Waxen. 


Wore, 


Worn. 


Wove, 


Woven. 


Wept, 


Wept. 


Won, 


Won. 


Wound, 


Wound. 


Wrought, 


Wrought, (r.) 


Wrung, 


Wrung. 


Wrote, 


Written. 



§ 216. A Defective Verb is one that wants 
some of its principal parts. They are chiefly the 
Auxiliary and Impersonal Verbs. 



120 VERBS. — DEFECTIVE. — IMPERSONAL. 

DEFECTIVE YERBS. 

Past Part. 



Present. 


Past. 


May, 


Might, 


Can, 


Could, 


Will, 


Would, 


Shall, 


Should, 


Must, 


Must, 


Ought, 


Ought, 


7 


Quoth, 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Must and ought are not varied. Ought is al- 
ways followed by a verb in the infinitive, which determines its 
tense ; e. g., " He ought to do it." Here ought is followed by 
the present infinitive, and is in the present tense. 

Remark 2. — Quoth is used only in ludicrous expressions. 
It is not varied ; — its nominative always comes after the verb ; 
^' g-j " Quoth heP 

IMPERSONAL VERBS- 

§ 217. Impersonal Verbs assert the existence 
of some action, or state, but refer to no personal 
subject. They are preceded by the pronoun ity 
and are always in the third person singular ; e. g., 
"It haih ;' "It thunders;' "It mowsT 

Kemark. — The pronoun it does not seem to represent a noun, but, in 
oonuection with the verb, merely to express a state of things. 



ADJECTIVES. — DERIYATIVE ADJECTIVES. 121 



ADJECTIVES. 

§ 218. An Adjective is a word used to de- 
scribe or limit the meaning of a noun; e. g., Good 
boy ; a man ; the man ; either hat ; five dollars. 

Explanation. — The word adjective signifies adding, or add- 
ed. This part of speech is so called because it adds a quality 
or limitation to the meanino: of the noun to which it relates. 

j^W All words that have the construction of adjectives are 
considered as belono-in^j to this class. 



o o 



CLASS. 

§ 219. Adjectives are divided into two classes; 

Descriptive and Difinitive. 

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

§ 220. A Descriptive Adjective is a word used 
to describe a noun; e. g., Ripe peaches; red roses; 
tali aMrls. 

Hemapk. — AdJTCtives derived from verbs, and havinf^ the form of par- 
ticiples, are called Participial Adjectives; e. g., Enduring friendship. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Doscriptivo Adjectives in the following exercises. / 

Model. — -' Good boys are obedient to their parents." " GoogC is an 

Adj-'ctive, Descriptive. It describes bovs; "An adjective is a word used 

to describe or limit the meaning of a noun.*' 

6 



122 ADJECTIVES. — EXERCISES. 

Martha is a good girl. Ripe fruit is delicious. The silver 
moon is just appearing. Honesty is the best policy. A wise 
son makes a glad father. Dogs are useful animals. Sharp 
knives are dangerous in the hands of the unexperienced. The 
brave soldier fought for his country. Do you see that high 
house ? William has a new book. Dutiful children are be- 
loved by their parents. Jane is a most careless girl. Genteel 
manners are becoming. The morning sun gilds the horizon. 
A notorious pirate was lately executed. Thomas Slade is a 
youth of great promise. An impetuous temper should be 
guarded against. 

The fatal day is approaching. Marbles is a stupid play. 
AVebster and Calhoun were able statesmen. A wealthy planter 
lives in that fine house. Dick is a good servant. Bob is the 
most industrious hand in the field. An industrious student 
will secure the respect of his teacher. It'is an old adage, but 
true; " A serene mind makes a cheerful countenance." It is 
sometimes the case, that truth is more wonderful than fiction. 

§ 221. Descriptive Adjectives are varied only 
to express comparison. 

§ 222. There are three degrees of comparison ; 
the Positive^ the Comparative^ and the Superlative. 

§ 223. The Positive degree simply describes 
the object; e. g., " Good boys ;" "^Jine girls." 

§ 224. The Comparative degree increases or 
lessens the meaning of the positive ; e. g., " Better 
men;" "finer girls." 

>^ § 225. The Superlative degree increases or les- 
sens the meaning of the positive to the highest or 
lowest degree ; e. g., "Best boys;" "finest girls." 



ADJECTIVES. — COMPARISON. — EXERCISES. 123 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 220. If the Positive is a word of one sylkble, the Com- 
parative is regularly formed by the addition of r or er^ and the 
Superlative by st or est^ to the end of it; e. g., Wise, loiser^ 
loisest ; kind, kinder^ kindest, 

§ 227. In words of more syllables than one, the Compara- 
tive and Superlative are usually made by prefixing the Adverbs 
more and most to the Positive ; e. g., Benevolent, more benevo- 
lent, most benevolent, 

§ 228. Dissyllables ending in ?/, or silent e, and those ac- 
cented on the last syllable are often compared like monosyl- 
lables by er and est; e. g., Happy, hapiyier, happiest ; noble, 
nobler, noblest ; profound, profounder, p>rofoundest, 

§ 229. Diminution of quality is sometimes expressed by 
the adverbs less and least ; e. g.. Wise, less wise, least ivise, 

§ 230. The following words admit of no general rule, but 
are compared irregulai'ly : 



Positive. 




Comparative 


Superlative. 


Good, 




Better, 


Best. 


Little, 




Less, 


Least. 


Much or ) 
Manv, ) 




More. 


Most. 


Bad, Evil or 

111, 


[ 


Worse, 


Worst. 


Near, 




Nearer, 


Nearest or Next. 


Old, 




Older, 


Oldest or Eldest. 


Late, 




Later, 


Latest or Last. 



EXERCISES. 

Compare the words in the following exercises ; — give the rule. 
Short, white, deep, low, sharp, rich, wise, hard, warm, brave 
thick, fair, tall, sweet, sour, great, fine, long, large, weak, full, 



12-4 ADJECTIVES. — EXERCISES. 

cold, tame, wild, gay, small, grateful, Idnd, studious, attentive, 
negligent, polite, good, tranquil, pleasing, industrious, favorable, 
moderate, prudent, amiable, disinterested, right, round, famous, 
contented, diligent, perfect, extreme, able, ample, bappy, dis- 
creet, many, near, lovely, little, desolate, deceitful, productive, 
fruitful, deliglitful, artful, ripe, eloquent, cheerful, revengeful, 
dark, hateful, generous, bigh, low, unmindful, dispassionate, 
benevolent, watchful, old, much. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Descriptive Adjectives ; — tell the degree of comparison. 

Model. — "William has a kind sister." " ZV?zc2" is an Adjective, De- 
scriptive, of the Positive degree. 

The rose is tbe fairest of flowers. Thomas has a sweet 
orange. A correct writer does not fear criticism. Whilst you 
have opportunity, endeavor to secure a good education. Rob- 
ert's apple is the largest of all. Father is happier at home 
than abroad. Alfred is more conceited than I supposed him 
to be. Some men are more learned than wise. The diamond 
is the hardest of all stones. They were great and good men. 
Spurgeon is more eloquent than Whitfield. Jane is more im- 
prudent than her sister. Are thick lips handsome ? 

Old Carlo is very watchful at night. Sarah is an interesting 
young lady. The good scholar obeys his instructor. Astron- 
omy is a wonderful science. Sight is the noblest of the senses. 
The Americans are an independent people. John is a generous 
and spirited lad. The gentleman has only a moderate income. 
Solon was the wisest of the Greeks. Platina is heavier than 
gold. They follow a bold adventurer whom they fear, we an 
officer beloved and respected by all. The style of Dryden is 
capricious and varied ; that of Pope is cautious and uniform. 



ADJECTIVES. — EXERCISES. — 0BSE:RVATI0NS. 12f> 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Compose five sentences containing an example of an Ad 
jective in the Positive degree. Five containing an example of 
an Adjective in the Comparative degree. Five containing ap 
example in the Superlative degree. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — A quality may have different degrees in the same object, 
or in different objects; e. g., ** The banker is richer now, than he was last 
year ; he is now the richest he ever has been. " 

Remark 2. — Adjectives are commonly said to have three degrees of 
comparison. There are, however, an infinite number of degrees in which 
quahties may exist in nature. The nicer shades of quaUty are expressed 
by the aid of various modifying words and phrases; such as, rather ^ 
somewhat^ slightly^ a little^ very little^ so, too, very^ miLch^ far^ greatly^ highly, 
extremely^ exceedingly, by fa?', in a high degree. 

Remark 3. — A duninution of quahty is expressed by annexing ish] 
e. g., TVhite, whitish; black, blackish. 

Remark 4. — The Superlative degree is sometimes formed by adding most 
to the end of the last syllable ; e. g., Inmost^ hindmost^ topmost^ nethermost^ 
utmost. 

Remark 5. — Superior, inferior, interior, &c., from Latin Comparatives, 
are used to express comparison in English ; but they have not the form 
nor construction of English Comparatives. 

Remark 6. — Most Adjectives that denote qualities that cannot exist in 
different degrees, are not compared; e. g.. Round, square, twohanded, 
almighty, supreme, perfect, right, lurong, infinite, ceaseless, omnipresent, 
eternal, Sec. 

Remark 7. — Many Adjectives which denote invariable qualities are 
constantly used in the Comparative and Superlative by the best writers ; 
e. g., "Sight is the most perfect of all our senses." 

Remark 8. — Several Adjectives often relate to the same N'oun ; e. g., 
" Broad deep rivers float long heavy rafts." "When one Adjective limits 
another, the two should be parsed as compound ; e. g., " A dress of daj'k 
blue silk." 



126 ADJECTIVES. — DEFINITIVE. — OBSEKVATIONS. 

Remark 9. — Adjectives derived from proper names, definitives and such 
as refer to position, material and form are seldom if ever compared. 

Remark 10. — When the participle is ])laced before the noun which it 
modifies, it is called a participial adjective; e. g., "The rising sun." 
When it is placed after the noun, and is itself limited bj other words, it is 
parsed as aparticijple; e. g., " The sun rising in the east." 



DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

§ 231. A Definitive Adjective is a word used 
to limit the meaning of a noun ; e. g.^ A man ; the 
book ; either horse. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — " A, an and the, are not a distinct part of speech in our 
language."— Webster. 

Remark 2. — " It is unnecessary in any language to regard the article 
as a distinct part of speech." — Buttman. 

Remark 3. — " The words a or an are reckoned, by some grammarians, 
a separate part of speech ; but as they in all respects come under the de- 
finition of the adjective, it is unnecessary as well as improper, to rank 
them as a separate class by themselves." — Connon. 

Remark 4. — "Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their 
character. The former stand for nouns, and never belong to them ; the 
latt'.T belong to nouns, and never stand for them. Hence such a thing aa 
an adjective pronoun cannot exist." 

§ 232. The following list includes the principal 
definitives : A or an, the, this, that, these, those, 
former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, 
neither, some, one, none, any, all, such, much; 



ADJECTIVES. — OBSERVATIONS. — EXERCISES. 127 

together with the numerals one, two, three, and 
first, second, &c. 

^;sW This list includes all words ranked under the following classes ; 
namely, Articles^ Numerals^ Distributives^ Demonstratives^ and Indefinites 

OBSERyATIONS. 

Remark 1. — A or an, one, this, that, each, every, either, 
neither, and the ordinals first, second, ttc, relate to nouns of 
the singular number only, or such as convey a collective idea ; 
e. g., A man ; 07ie boy ; each committee. 

Remark 2. — These, those, few, several, all, and the cardinals 
above one, relate to nouns of the plural number only ; e. g., 
These books ; those men ; five boys. 

Remark 3. — Former, latter, the, any, such, some, which, 
what, &c., relate to nouns of the plural number. 

Remark 4. — The definitive a is used before words beg-inninor 
with a consonant sound; e. g., A tree; a house; a union; 
a world. 

An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; e. g., 
An eagle ; an hour ; an outline. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Definitive Adjectives in the following exercises : 

Model. — " This day will be remembered." " Tliis^^ is an adjective 

definitive, and modifies the meaning of the noun day, 

" An adjective is a word used to describe or limit the meaning of a 

ijoun." 

A book. An apple. The garden. Each toy. Every beast. 
Either person. An orchard. This road. That sort of thing. 
The event. Those boys are troublesome. All must die. 



128 ADJECTIVES. EXERCISES. — MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Some persons have emigrated. Other things are wanted. One 
dollar is sufficient. Anything will do. Every individual 
perished. All pupils are not studious. Such conduct -is in- 
sufferable. The watch is broken. An hour too soon. The 
question is proper. None will escape punishment. Other busi- 
ness demands our attention. A thousand soldiers perished on 
the field. That man is cowardly. This person is punctual. 
Whose book is this ? Somebody has stolen my knife. 

This rule is preferable to that. These scholars are more 
studious than those. The former plan has yielded to the lat 
ter. Each exercise was well written. The first method is 
better than the last. Many of our hopes are blasted. Few 
men are of the same mind. Much remains to be said upon 
these points. Much harm arises from imprudence. The same 
course was pursued by William and Thomas last year. Neither 
remark was just. Little hope is entertained of his recovery. 
More were present than were expected. Our wishes must often 
yield to those of others. The good are happy. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write sentences introducing the following words : A, ariy 
the, this, that, these, those, former, latter, which, what, each, 
every ^ either, neither, some, one, none, any, all, such, much, both^ 
few, fewer, fewest, first, last, little, less, least, many, more 
mosty own, some, several, sundry, enough, 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

In parsing an Adjective, — 

1. Tell what part of speech it is ; (why ?) 

2. What class it belongs to ; (why ?) 



ADJECTIVES. MODEL FOR PARSING. 129 

3. Compare it, and give the degree ; (if a descriptive ad 
jective.) 

4. Tell what noun it belono-s to. 

5. Give the rule for construction. 

" Industrious pupils deserve praise." " Industrious^'' is an Adjective, 
Descriptive, of the Positive degree ; (Pos. industrious, Comp. more indus- 
trious, Sup. most industrious,) and modifies '•'' x^upils'''' according to 

Rule VI. — Adjectives relate to Nouns which they describe or limit. 

" Mary's peach is r^}:)er than mine." *' Riper'''' is an Adjective, Descrip- 
tive, of the Comparative degree; {Pos, ripe, Comp, riper, and Sup>. ripest,) 
and modifies ^' peach"' according to 

Rule VI. — Adjectives, &c. 

** Minnie's effort is worthy of the highest commendation." " Highesf ig 
an Adjective, Descriptive, of the Superlative degree ; {Pos. high, Comp. 
higher. Sap. highest,) and modifies " commendation^'' according to 

Rule VI. — Adjective.-, &c. 

** The eartli is round." *• TAe" is an Adjective, Definitive, and modifie? 
^* earth,^^ according to 

Rule VI. — Adjectives,-&c. 

"^1 bird can sing." '^u.1" is an Adjective, Definitive, and modifies 
^^bird,^^ according to 

Rule VI. — Adjectives, &c. 

"James has killed Jive squirrels." "i^Jue" is an Adjective, Definitive 
and modifies ^'' squirrels^'' according to 

Rule VI. — Adjectives, &c. 

*' Give mo this apple, and I will give you ihat.''^ " ThaV^ is an Adjec- 
tive, Definitive, nnd modifies ^'^ app^ understood, according to 

Rule VI. — Adjectives, &c. 

All men have sinned. That dark cloud indicates rain. 
Henry's lofty spirit was crushed. A generous man bestows his 
favors seasonally. That lady has expended a large fortune in 
acts of benevolence. Every man should seek some employ- 
ment, if lie would fill the end of his beino;. The mornino; sun 
shone bright and clear. That careless boy has injured the 
map. Each soldier drew his battle blade. The diligent man 

6* 



130 ADJECTIVES. — QUESTIONS. 

treasures up riches agaiust the day of want. The academy is 
surrounded with shady trees. Early fruit will keep but a short 
time. 

Have you seen the last invention ? All the pupils loved 
Matilda. Emma has the most pleasant seat in school. The 
greatest men are not always the best. The sable hearse moved 
slowly on. An indulgent parent delights not in the rod. The 
sun is larger than the earth. The Pacific is larger than the 
Atlantic. The Alps are high, the Andes are higher, but the 
Himalayas are the highest of all. The kingdom of heaven suf- 
fereth violence, and the violent take it by force. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an Adjective ? 

What is the meaning of the word Adjective? 

What is said of words belonging to this construction ? 

How are Adjectives divided? 

What are they called ? 

What is a Descriptive Adjective ? 

Are they varied? For what ? 

How many degrees of Comparison are there ? 

What are they ? 

What is said of the Positive ? 

Comparative ? Superlative ? 

How is the Comparative formed ? 

Superlative ? 

What is said of Dissyllables ending in y, <fec. ? 

What is said of less and least? 

Compare good. Little. Much or Many. 

Bad. 111. Near. Old. Late. 

What is said of the quality of some Adjectives ? 



PROXOUXS.— OBSERVATIONS. 131 

What is said of Comparison in Note Second ? 
What is said of ish / 

What is the effect of Most after certain words ? 
What is said of Round ? Square ? &c. 
What is said of the use of many Adjectives denoting invaria 
ble qualities ? 

several Adjectives relating to the same Noun? 

the Participle ? 

What is a Definitive Adjective ? 

What Classes of words are included under this head ? 

What is said of a or an, one, this, that, &c., &c. ? 

these, those, few, &c,, &c. ? 

thej former, latter, (fee, <fec, ? 



PRONOUNS. 

§ 233. A Pronoun is a word used in the place 
of a noun; e. g., ^^ Alfred was tired, and he sat 
down." 

Explanation. — The word Pronoun means "instead of a 
noun." In the sentence " Alfred was tired, and he sat down," 
the word he stands for the noun Alfred, and is used to avoid 
repetition. 

GBSEEYATIOlSrS. 

Remark 1. — The personal pronouns are used to represent some relation 
to the speaker. Those of the first and second persons can scarcely be said 
to represent the name of the speaker, or of the hearer, since they may be 
used when the name is unknown. They are employed to show a relation 
rather tlian a name. Those of the third person represent as well the name 
of some person or thing, as its relation to the speaker. They enable us to 



132 PEONOUXS. — CLASSES. — PEE30NAL. 

avoid repeating it ; tliey also show its relation in regard to sex and its 
syntactic relation. 

Remark 2. — The word for which a pronoun stands is called its anie- 
Cfc^^ri^, because it usually precedes the pronoun. Some have limited the 
term antecedent to the word represented by a relative pronoun. There 
can be no propriety in this, unless we "^^11 have every pronoun to be a 
relative, when it stands for a noun that precedes it. In the example, 
"Alfred was tired, and he sat down;" he represents Alfi'ed as its ante- 
cedent, yet in our most approved grammars it is not called a relative pro- 
noun, but a personal pronoun. 

Remark 3. — The antecedents of the personal pronouns of the first and 
second persons are always supposed to be present, and consequently sel- 
dom named ; that of the third person is usually expressed. 

Remark 4. — A pronoun with which a question is asked, usually stands 
for some person or thing unknown to the speaker ; the noun therefore 
cannot occur before it, but may be used after it, or ia place of it ; e. g., 
" In the grave, ivho shall give thanks?" The word who in this sentence 
is equivalent to what person^ taken interrogatively. 

RE.AIARK 5. — Personal and interrogative pronouns often stand in con- 
struction as the antecedents to other pronouns ; e. g., " Ih that is slothful 
in his work, is a brother to him that is a great waster." Here he and him 
are equivalent to the wa?z, and each is taken as the antecedent to the rel- 
ative which follows it. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

§ 234. Pronouns are divided into two classes : 
PersonaL and Relative. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 235. A Personal Pronoun is one that indi- 
cates the person of the noun it represents. They 



PRONOUNS. — SIMPLE PERSONAL. — DECLENSION. 185 

are divided into two classes : Simple^ and Com- 
pound, 

SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 236. The Simple Personal Pronouns are ly 
thou or you J he^ sJiCj and it. 

§ 237. / is of the first person, and denotes the speaker; 
you is of the second person, and denotes the individual ad- 
dressed ; he^ she and it^ are of the third person, and denote the 
individual or thing spoken of. 

DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. __ Plural. 

Nom, L Nom, AVe. 

Poss. My. Poss, Our. 

Ohl Me. Ohj. Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Thou or you. Nom, Ye or you. 

Poss, Thy or your. Poss, Your. 

Ohj, Thee or you. Ohj, You. 

THIRD PERSON. 

Masculine, 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom, He. Nom, They. 

Poss, His. Poss, Their. 

Ohj, Him. Ohj. Them. 



184 PRONOUNS. — DECLENSION. — OBSEEVATIONS. 





THIRD 


PERSON 






Feminine. 






Singular. 






Plural. 


Nom. She. 






Nom. 


They. 


Poss. Her. 






Poss. 


Their. 


Ohj. Her. 






Ohj. 


Them. 




THIRD 


PERSON. 






Neuter. 






Singular, 








Plural. 


Nom. It. 






Nom. 


They. 


Poss. Its. 






Poss. 


Their. 


Ohj. It. 






Ohj. 


Them. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — As the persons speaking or spoken to are sup- 
posed to be present, and their sex obvious, a variety of forms 
in the corresponding pronouns, to express the distinction of 
gender is unnecessary. But, persons or things spoken of being 
absent, it is necessary to have certain forms to distinguish gen- 
der. The third person of pronouns is distinguished by using 
he for the masculine, she for the feminine, and it for the neuter. 

Remark 2. — It \^ often used in a vague sense, as the subject 
of verbs descriptive of weather; e. g., " /^ rains ;^^ '^ It thun- 
dersP 

Remark 3. — Formerly thou was used in addressing a single 
individual, and a corresponding form of the verb was used ; 
e. g., " Thou S2ycakest like one endowed with wisdom ;" but 
gradually you has come to take its place, till the use of thou 
except in solemn style is wholly discontinued. 

Remark 4. — The word you was originally plural in signifi- 
cation. It is now universally employed in popular discourse to 
represent either a singular or plural noun. 



PRONOUNS.— EXERCISES. 135 

Note. — ^The usage of you in the singular has become so common, tliat 
some writers would have the verb after it in the singular also. No ad- 
vantage would be gained by adopting this course. It seems to accord 
more with simplicity as well as the fact to regard it as plural. In certain 
kinds of writing lue is used in the same waj^, and so also is the correspond- 
ing pronoun in French, and some other modern languages, in which, how- 
ever, it is always regarded as plural in form. 

Remark 5. — The apostrophe is never used with his^ hers^ its, 
ourSj yours^ and theirs, 

Remark 6. — 3fine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours and theirs, 
are possessive pronouns. They are used, in construction, either 
as nominatives or objectives ; e. g., " Your pleasures are past ; 
mine are to come." 

"That mine^ thine, yours, his, hers and theirs, do not constitute the 
possessive case is clearly demonstrable ; for they are constantly used 
as nominatives to verbs, and objectives after verbs and prepositions."- 
"Webster. 

^^Mine, thine, &c., are often parsed as pronouns in the possessive case 
In the sentence ' This book is mine,' the word inine is said to possess book 
understood. When supplied, the phrase becomes not mine book, but my 
"book. By this we are made to parse mine as possessing a word before 
which it cannot be used." — ^Wells. 

" A solution which is derived from an interference with the orthography 
of a language cannot be in accordance with the grammatical principles of 
any language. This would be sporting syntax at the expense of orthog- 
raphy." — James Browx. 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the Personal Pronouns in the following exercises ; — tell the 
person, gender, number^ and case. 

Model. — " We progress by industry and perseverance." 
*' TFe" is a Pronoun, Personal, of the Pii'st Person. It is made in the 
Nominative PluraL 



136 PRONOUNS. — COMPOUND PERSONAL. 

You must not neglect /to improve your spare time. Lend 
me your knife to cut this stick. This book is mine and thai 
is yours. They say that the earth is spherical. Thomas saw 
the deer and shot it. He who is just will be rewarded. Susan 
is a good girl, and she will be loved. He fought many battles 
and wrote the history of them. They may care for you, but 
they do not care for me. I was athirst, and ye gave me drink. 
He that trusteth in riches shall fall. They say that the man is 
a swindler. You must not associate with indolent girls. Is 
your knife sharper than mine ? 

The officer was esteemed for his prudence and valor. He 
that is of a perverse heart shall be despised. Your pleasures 
are past, mine are to come. Are you hungry? My son found 
your knife in the street. She fears to approach him on the 
subject. I am thirsty. James, you must do as I tell you, or 
it will be to no purpose. William must give that book to me. 
Joseph knew his brethren, but they knew him not. My house 
is at your service. We cannot see the stars, as the light of the 
sun overpowers them. Jane dropped her fan and her brother 
gave it to her again. I know you will receive it for the sake 
of the donor. " 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 238. When self (plural selves) is added to 
the personal pronouns^ they are called Compound 
Versonal Pronouns, 

OBSERYATIOlsrS. 

Remark 1. — Compound Personal Pronouns are used for the sake of 
emphasis or distinction ; or when an action is represented as exerted upon 
the agent ; e. g., " I mj/5eZ/ did it j" *' He killed himself,''^ 



PRONOUNS. — DECLENSION. 



137 



Remark 2. — Compound Personal Pronouns want tho possessive case; 
the objective is the same as the nominative. 

Remark 3. — Self is supposed originally to have been an adjective. It 
was joined by the Anglo-Saxons to nouns and pronouns in every case. 
They said what would be equivalent to Iself, myself, meself except that 
self had a particular termination for each case, as other adjectives had. 

Remark 4. — These pronouns are seldom used in the nominative case, 
except when annexed to the simple pronouns. 

§ 239. Compound Personal Pronouns want the possessive 
case ; the objective is the same as the nominative. 

DECLENSION OF THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUN. 



Singular. 

Nom, Mvself. 
Poss. 



Ohj. Myself. 

Singular. 

Norn. Thyself. 

Poss. . 

Ohj. Thyself. 

Singular. 

Nom. Himself. 

Poss. . 

Ohj, Himself. 

Singular. 

Nom, Herself. 

Poss. . 

Ohj. Herself. 

Singular. 

Nom. Itself. 
Poss. , 



Ohj. Itselt 



Plural. 

JVom. Ourselves. 

Poss. . 

Ohj. Ourselves. 

Plural. 

JVo77i. Yourselves. 

Poss. . 

Ohj. Yoiirselves. 

Plural. 

Nom. Themselves. 

Poss. . 

Ohj. Themselves. 

Plural. 

Nom. Themselves. 

Poss. . 

Ohj. Themselves. 

Plural. 

Nom. Themselves. 

Poss. . 

Ohj. Themselves. 



138 PRONOUNS. — RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the Compound Personal Pronouns in the following exercises ; 
—tell the Person, Gender, Number, and Case. 

Model. — "Mary fell and hurt herself." "HerseZ/" is a Compound 
Personal Pronoun, of Tliird Person Feminine. It is made in the Ob- 
jective Singular, &c. 

The carpenter broke it himself. Minnie fell and hurt her- 
self. Thomas separated himself from his companions. You 
can do it by yourself. Come along — we can go by ourselves. 
You must not neglect to improve yourselves during my ab- 
sence. Judas went out and hanged himself. Children often 
forget themselves in play. Father himself gave it to me. She 
injured herself and the person who told her. Consider your- 
selves, for you are rational beings. We can make ourselves 
happy without riches. It is our duty to provide for ourselves. 
Let each esteem others better than himself. It is your privi- 
lege to make yourself useful if you choose. The professor de- 
voted himself for some years before his death entirely to the 
study of Greek. Did your sister promise to come by herself, 
or shall we send for her ? 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 240. A Relative Pronoun is one that refers 
to some preceding noun or pronoun, called the 
Antecedent; e. g., ^^ I have lost the book which I 
bought." 

Explanation. — The office of the relative is to connect a 
(lelining or limiting clause to the noun or pronoun going be- 
fore, for the purpose of further describing it. In the proposi- 



PRON'OUNS. — SIMPLE RELATIVE.^. 139 

tioii " I have lost the book Avhicli I bouglit," which is tlie 
relative, and hook the antecedent. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — The following distinctions will show the difference be- 
tween a relative and a personal pronoun : — 

(1.) The relative refers to an object always known, and either previously 
mentioned, or so clearly implied as to need no mention ; the personal 
pronoun refers to an object known, and in the third person to an object 
previously mentioned, but in the first and second persons to aa object not 
previously mentioned. 

(2.) The personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical 
person ; / for the first, thou or you for the second, and Ae, she, or it 
for the third. The relative pronouns do not change their form to repre- 
sent person. 

(3.) The essential difference is seen in their use in construction. Tiie 
personal pronoun may represent the subject of an independent sentence; 
the relative never ; e.g., " He is present;" *' '>Yhich is important." Tl^e 
first is a complete sentence ; the second needs some word, on which it 
may depend. 

Remark 2. — The relative serves two purposes ; one, as a pronoun to 
represent a noun in any relation ; the other as a connective joining the 
relative clause to the antecedent In this case it may be considered as a 
kind of auxiliary employed to convert an independent proposition into a 
dependent one, and to adapt it as an adjective to modify some antecedent 
noun. 

SIMPLE RELATIVES. 

§ 241. The Simple Relatives are loho^ which, that, and 
what ; they are the same in both numbers and are thus de- 
clined : — 

Singular. Phiral. 

JVom, "Who. Nam. Who. 

Poss, AVhose. Poss, Whose. 

Ohj, Whom. Ohj. Whom, 



140 PHONOUNS. — SIMPLE RELATIVES. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Which. Nom. Which. 

Po?,s, Whose. Po8s, Wliose. 

Ohj, Which. Oh]. Which. 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn, What. Nom. What. 

Poss. . Poss, 



Ohj. AVhat. Ohj. What. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. That. Nom. That. 

Poss. . Poss. 



Ohj. That. Ohj. That. 

§ 242. Who is applied to persons only ; e. g., " The man 
wlio is accustomed to reflect finds instruction in everything." 

§ 243. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things 
without life ; e. g., "The dog which barks." "I have found 
the book which I had lost." 

Remark. — Which is applied also to collective nouns expressing a col- 
lection of persons, when tlie reference is to tlie collection, and not the 
persons composing it ; e. g., " The committee which was appointed." 

§ 244. That is used for who or which, and may be applied 
to either persons or things ; e. g., " He that gathereth in sum- 
mer is a wise son." 

§ 245. What is applied to things only, and is never used 
except when the antecedent is omitted ; e. g., " This is what I 
wanted." 

Remark. — Butler says that what is a simple relative, referring to some 
general antecedent oml'ted. At first view this opinion may appear some* 
what novel. A little reflection will show that the antecedent is ihinj or 
things, or some general term, obvious from the sense. 

It has been the uniform custom of teachers to suljstltute and parse 
the equivalent words {thai which or thing which\ instead of the orig- 



PRONOUNS. — EXERCISES. 141 

inal. That this course is erroneous must be obvious from the simple 
fact that by this method they parse their own language, not the au- 
thor's. 

When the antecedent is expressed the relative following must be which 
or that — never ivhat; e. g., *' The rose that was plucked is fading." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the "Relative and Antecedent in the following exercises : 
Model. — " Theodore has lost the purse that I gave him." In this sen- 
tonce that is the Relative, and purse the Antecedent. 

Never purchase a thing that you have not seen. I am writ- 
ing with the pen that my sister gave me. This is the bird that 
broke out of the cac^e. The man who said that must be a 
prophet. The books which I sent by George are for Mary. 
A king who is just will endeavor to make his subjects happy. 
Alexander, who conquered the world, was conquered by his 
own passion. The rose that you plucked is fading. The 
gentseman whom you addressed was my uncle. Teachers are 
usually pleased with pupils that progress well. Is this the 
book that was in your desk yesterday? Whom God wishes to 
destroy, he first makes mad. The man that purchased your 
plantation is highly pleased. 

Brother James carelessly broke the knife that his father 
gave him as a Christmas present. There are certain boys with 
whom it is the wish of your parents that you should not as- 
sociate. Preston, whom we heard in the Senate, is an eloquent 
speaker. The box that was sent from Charleston is much 
injured. The church that was lately injured by fire is under 
going repairs. He who steals my purse, steals trash. This is 
a beautiful dog that you have. The present that you sent me 
wris much admired. I took what he gave me. The man who 
is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on with con- 



142 PRONOUNS. — INTERROGATIVE. 

fidence. Cherish true patriotism, whose root is benevolence. 
I have ascertained what we must learn. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 246. W7io, which, and what, when used in asking ques- 
tions, are sometimes called Interrogative Pronouns ; e. g., 
" Who is here?" " Which book shall I send?" " What do 
you see ?" 

OBSERYATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Some writers, says Murray, class Interrogatives as a sep- 
arate kind of pronoun ; but they are too nearly related to the Relative, 
both in nature and in form, to render such a distinction necessary ; nor 
do ihey lose the character of Relatives when they become Interrogatives. 
The only difference is, that without an interrogation they Iiave reference 
to a subject that is antecedent, definite, and known. Yvath the interroga- 
tion they refer to a subject subsequent, indefinite and unknown, which it 
is expected that the answer should express ; e. g., " Who is concealed in 
the garden ?" Here the name is not mentioned ; the answer must be, 
"I do not know who,^^ equal to "I do not know him who is concealed," 
&c. Here who is a relative pronoun having him for its antecedent. 

Eemaek 2. — Wliich and what as Interrogatives are Deiinitive Ad- 
jectives belonging to some Noun expressed or understood. Who is 
equivalent to what person. 

Eemark 3. — A question is either direct or indirect; — direct; e. g., 
"Who did it?" — indirect ; c. g., " He asked me who did it." 

Note. — Besides pronouns, various interrogative adverbs are used in 
asking questions ; e. g , Why ? where ? when ? how ? 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Interrogatives in the following exercises ; — tell whether 
the question is direct or indirect 



PRONOUNS.— COMPOUND RELATIVES. 143 

Model. — " James, who broke that slate ?" " TFAo" is the Interroga- 
tivo ; the question is direct. 

" The teacher inquired who broke that slate." " TT/io" is the Inter- 
rogative ; the question is indirect. 

lie asked me wliicli bov I meant? James, whom did you 
meet there ? Father inquired who broke that window. Boys, 
which of us shall go ? Whose hat is that on the parlor table ? 
What did you say you intended doing ? AVhom did you send 
to Alabama ? I asked whose book that was. What does your 
friend say respecting it ? What is the best policy to be ob- 
served ? Your father asked me what I thouo'ht of it. I can 
hardly answer ; what is your opinion ? Are you prepared what 
to say ? What time do you want for reflection ? What answer 
shall I o-ive the committee ? 

James, which seat do you prefer? Who has learned the 
lesson ? What have you found in the garden ? For what 
were you sent here? Who shall separate us? Which w^ay 
has Mary gone ? Whose books have you found ? Of whom 
do you speak ? 



COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

§ 247. The relatives ^vllo^ which and what^ 

with ever or soever annexed^ are called Compound 

Relatives ; e. g.^ ' '* Whoever does no good does 

harm." 

§ 248. Like the relative what^ they are only used when the 
indefinite antecedent is omitted. In such cases they are more 
commonly used than the simple pronoun. 



144 PRONOUNS. — OBSERVATIONS. — EXERCISES. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — These words do not include a relative and antecedent, 
but, like what^ the antecedent is omitted. If the antecedent is included 
in the word, as is most commonly supposed, it must follow that it is 
frequently in two cases at the same time, the subject of one verb and the 
object of another ; e. g., " I love whoever loves me." In this example 
it lii palpable, from the form of the word {whoever)^ that it is in the nomi- 
native case. The object is omitted, because it is indefinite. 

Remark 2. — ^In old writings the antecedent is sometimes expressed ; 
e. g., " Blessed is he whosoever shall not be offended in me." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Compound Relative ; — tell the antecedent omitted. 

Model. — " "Whatever purifies, fortifies the heart." *' Whatever'^ is the 
Compound Relative, and *' thing^'' the Antecedent. 

It is certain that whoever goes will never return. It is 
written, "Whoever runs may read." Whoever studies will 
become learned. Whoever most distino:uishes himself will ob- 
tain the prize. Whoever breaks this rule must be punished. 
Whoever steals my purse will steal trash. Whomsoever he 
recommends will be elected. Whoever invented printing 
lived about the fifteenth century. AVhatever violates nature 
cannot be innocent. Whoever forgets a benefit is an enemy to 
society. The Lord chastens whomsoever he loves. The reward 
shall be given to whomsoever deserves it. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing a Personal Pronoun of the 
First Person agreeing with its antecedent in gender, number, 
and person. In like manner write five containing a Personal 



PIl0^^ou^'S. — model for parsijtg. 145 

Prononn of the Second Person, Write five containing a Per- 
sonal Pronoun of the Third Person. 

"Write five sentences containing a Simple Pelative agreeing 
with its antecedent in gender, number, and person. Five con- 
taining a Compound Relative. 

Write five sentences containing an example of an Interrog- 
ative Pronoun having the question in the direct form. Five 
containing an example of an Interrogative with the question 
^'ndirect. 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 
In parsing a Pronoun ; — 

1. Tell what pavt of speech it is; (why ?) 

2. What kind of a pronoun ; (why ?) 

3. Tell what its antecedent is; 

4. Give the gender, person and number; (why?) 
6. Decline it ; 

6. Give the case and construction ; 

7. Rule for construction. 

" Wr.liam w;3nt to his pla}'." " //i^>" is a Pronoun, Porsonal, Kascu- 
liiT^, Third Sn^ular, ani ajrccs with itr, antccedont WilLamy accori- 
ino: to . 

"Hl'le YTT. — PronouriS must agrco with their antecedents in gender, 
numb T, an 1 p T.-on. 

It is mi'lc in the Possessive, anrl limits t!io noun play, according to 

Pule IV — A noun or pronoun used to limit the relation of ownership, 
sourc3 or kind, is pat in the possessive. 

"Thomas brouprht a book, and laid it on the table." "/iJ" is a Pronoun, 
Per?oiiMl. Neuter, Third Singular, and agrees with its antecedent book, ac- 
cording to 

Rule VII. — Pronouns must agree, &c. 

1 



146 PRONOUNS. — MODEL FOK PARSINa. 

It is made in the Objective, and limits the action of the transitive verb 
laid^ according to 

EuLE III. — A noun or pronoun used to hmit the action of a transitive 
verb, must be in the objective. 

" Edward knew the man who was so kind to him." *' TTAo" is a Pro- 
noun, Relative, Masculine, and agrees with its antecedent man^ accord- 
ing to 

Rule VII. — Pronouns must agree, &c. 

It is in the Nominative Case, and Subject of the verb was^ according to' 

Rule I. — The subject of a proposition must be in the nominative case. 

"Henry found what he wanted." '''' Whar is a Pronoun, Relative, 
Neuter, and agrees with its antecedent thing understood, according to 

Rule YII. — Pronouns must agree, &c. 

It is made in the Objective Singular, and limits the action of the tran- 
sitive verb wanted, according to 

Rule III. — A noun or pronoun used to limit, &c. 

" Whoever studies will become learned." " Whoever^^ is a Pronoun, 
Compound, Relative ; it is compounded of who and ever, and agrees with 
the antecedent person understood, according to 

Rule YII. — Pronouns must agree, &c. 

It is made in the Nominative Singular, and is the Subject, &c., accord- 
ing to 

Rule I. — The subject of a proposition, &c. 

"What did you eat for breakfast?" " Whaf^ is a Pronoun, Interroga- 
tive ; it is used in asking a question ; Singular Number, &c. 

It is made in the Objective Case, and limits the action of the transitive 
verb did eat, according to 

Rule III. — A noun or pronoun used to limit, &c. 

William's mother is dependent on him for support. Dili- 
gent pupils attend to their books during the hours for study. 
If William and Ilobert violate the rule they must be punished. 
Alfred took what his sister Matilda gave him. The nation 
was once powerful, but now it has become almost extinct. 



PRONOUNS. — EXERCISES. 147 

Here is the lad that brought the note, he can answer the ques- 
tion. George has read the book and lent it to James. A 
mother who reixards her children will correct them for their 
faults. Whoever gets this will not get much. The child that 
was lost some days ago is found. Jane should obey her mother. 
I witnessed the fact which he related. My little sister amuses 
herseh' with Annie's doll. The earth brought forth grass, and 
the herb vieldino; seed after its kind. 

James wronired himself to oblio-e his friends. Georo;e and 
William are diligent in their studies. Have you seen the book 
that father lately brought me from New York ? What is 
more refreshing to the eye than green ? for this reason Provi- 
dence has made it the common dress of nature. The sun, ac- 
cording to the theory of some of the ancient philosophers, 
quenches its flames in the ocean.. Whatever you undertake to 
do should be done without hesitation or delav. The commit- 
tee were much divided in their opinion. I forgot to tell you 
what the teacher said about good recitations this morning. 
The rule teaches what is necessary to be understood. 

It is an old adage and a true one, that whatever cannot be 
cured must be endured. The pointer that you gave my 
brother has been much admired for her fine qualities. My 
friend who leaves me here will reach Boston by noon. The 
^nan we met, from his dress seemed to be a sailor. Sarah is 
wTiting with a gold pen that was presented to her for the best 
specimen in penmanship by Professor Rand. You can take 
which you choose. There is the boy that caused so much 
disturbance on the play-ground last evening. The tree which 
Maria planted is dead. What do the artful and cunning gain 
by intrigue ? Have you done what I directed this morning? 
We are commanded to do with all dilio^ence whatever our 
hands find to do. What is more to be desired than wisdom ? 



148 PRONOUNS. — QrESTIONS. — ADVERB. 

its price is above rubies and fine gold. A Christian will not 
only love, but pray for his enemies. Whatever conduces to 
the best interests of society should be cultivated, 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a Pronoun ? 

How many kinds are there ? 

What is a Personal Pronoun ? 

How many kinds are there ? 

How many Simple Pronouns are there ? 

What Person is I ? You ? He ? She ? It ? 

What is said of Pronouns of the First and Second Person ? 

of the use of thou ? 

of you ? 

mine^ thine ^ &c. ? 

Decline /, you^ cfcc, &c. 

What is a Compound Personal Pronoun ? 

How are they used? 

What is a Eelative Pronoun ? 

How many kinds are there ? 

Decline who^ which^ &c. 

What is an Interroo-ative Pronoun ? 

How does it differ from the Relative ? 

To what does it relate ? 

What is a Compound Relative ? 



ADVERB, 

§ 249. An Adverb is a word used to modify 
the meamng of a verb, adjective^ or another ad- 



ADVERB. — OBSERVATIONS. 149 

verb ; e. g.^ '' James studies diligenthj^ and is a 
very attentive pupil." 

Explanation. — The office of the adverb is to shorten dis- 
course, by expressing in a single word what would require I wo 
or more; e. g., "James studies diligently;^'' that is, James 
studies in a diligent manner. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require 
several words; e. g., Kow^ for at this time; very, for in a high degree; 
diligently^ for in an industrious manner. Thus the meaning of almost i^ny 
adverb may be explained by some phrase beginning with a preposition 
and ending with a noun. 

Remark 2. — There are several customary combinations of short words, 
which are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyse 
in parsing; e.g., Not at all ; atlengtJi; in fine; in fall; at least ; at pres- 
ent ; at once; this once; in vain ; no doubt; on hoard. All words that 
convey distinct ideas, and rightly retain their individuality, ought to be 
taken separately in parsing. With the liberty of supposing a few olUpsos, 
an ingenious parser will seldom find occasion to speak of "adverbial 
phrases." In these instances lengthy doubt, fine, and board are unquestion- 
ably nouns ; once, too, is used as a noun ; full and all may be parsod 
either as nouns or as adjectives with a noun understood. 

Remark 3. — Under nearly all the different classes of words, particular 
instances may be quoted, in which other parts of speech seem to take the 
nature of adverbs, so as either to become such, or to be apparently used 
for them. (1.) NouxS: "And scrutiny became stone blind." — Cowpe/r. 
*• He will come home to-morroio .^' — Clark. (2.) Verbs: ^^ Smack went 
the whip, round went the wheels." — Cowper. "Like medicine given 
scalding hot." — Dodd, (3.) Adjectives: "Drink deep or taste not." — 
Pope. "A man may speak louder or softer in the same key; when ho 
speaks higher or lower he changes his key." — Sheridan. (4.) Pronouns: 
"What am I eased?" — Job. "He is somewhat arrogai t." — Dryden. 
(5.) Prepositions: "They shall go in and ow^." — Bille. "From going 



150 ADVERB. — EXERCISES. 

ix) and fro in the earth, and walking up and down in it." — Tbid. (6.) CoN 
JUNCTIONS: "Look, 05 1 blow this feather from my face." — Shakspeare, 
(7.) Exclamations are never used as adverbs, though most Greek gram- 
marians refer them to this class. 

Remark 4.— An adverb may be known by its answering to the ques- 
tion How ? Row much ? When or where ? 



EXERCISES. 

In the following exercises point out the Adverb; — tell how you 
know it. 

Model. — "The sun shines mildly." " if/Zc^Z?/" is an Adverb, because 
it modifies shines, 

I will never distrust your friendship. The stream flows very 
smoothly. James acted prudently in the matter. If you read 
attentively you will improve. Mary reads correctly. The 
difficulty will be settled amicably. James acted wisely. 
George, running hastily, fell and hurt himself. William and 
Mary read fluently. Robert acted more discreetly than we 
anticipated. Martha behaved badly at school yesterday. The 
wind moaned mournfully over h-er grave. 0, lightly, lightly 
tread. The storm raged fearfully. Hannah performed her 
duty faithfully. Jane is continually changing her mind. May 
we expect to see you to-morrow ? 

The company were agreeably disappointed. The wind blew 
terribly from the north. The sun shines mildly. The stars 
are very bright. He taught me as well as could be expected 
under the circumstances. We have come nearly a mile. The 
world is very large. I wish the difficulty between George and 
his brother was amicably settled. Edward swims badly for 
one that might do so much better. Where shall I put the 
cage ? I am very tired. The lark sings sweetly. Unless it 
should rain soon, the crops will be much injured. 



ADVERB. — CLASSES. — OBSERVATIONS. 151 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

§ 250. Adverbs may be divided into several 
classes. The following are the most important :- 

1 . Of time ; as 

To-daj, to-raorrow, yesterday, early, late, before, after, ere, soon, 
presently, now, immediately, directly, at once, next, then, when, ago, 
while, whilst, &c., &c. 

2. Of place ; as 

Here, there, thence, hence, whence, above, below, yonder, far, wide, 
near, within, without, fore, forward, right, backwards, sideway? >^ 
&c., &c. 

3. Of number; as 

Once, twice, thrice, first, secondly, thirdly, &c., &c. 

4. Of manner ; as 

Well, ill, slowly, politely, quickly, patiently, richly, poorly, cleverly, 
wisely, stupidly, sweetly, &c., &c. 

5. Of degree ; as 

Very, highly, exceedingly, quite, enough, extremely, nearly, es- 
pecially, &c., &c. 

6. Of affirmation and negation; as 
Yes, yea, ay, no, not, not at all, &c., &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Kemark 1. — The adverbs y:hen, where, why, how, &c., when used in 
asking question>«, are called interrogative adverbs; e. g., " WTien did your 
l)rother arrive?" 

Remark 2. — Adverbs of manner are generally formed from adjectives 
by adding/?/; e.g., Bright, brightly; smooth, smoothly. But when the 
adjective ends in ly, a j)hrase is commonly used ; e. g., " In a lovely 
manner." 



152 ADVERB. — EXERCISES. 

Remark 3. — There is used as an expletive to introduce a sentence 
when the verb to he denotes existence ; e. g., " Tliere are many of the 
same opinion." 

Remark 4. — Isfay^ no, and not are called negative adverbs ; nay is nearly 
obsolete ; no is generally used to denote denial in the answer to a ques- 
tion, and seems to stand for not and the sentence contained in the ques- 
tion, the necessary changes for person, &c., being made. Thus, " Will 
you go?" ''No;" that is, I will not go. It may be considered simply as 
used for not, the rest of the sentence being understood. 

Yes is generally used to denote assent in the answer to a question, and 
may be considered as modifying some word in a manner similar to no. 

Remark 5. — The adverb so is often used as a substitute for some pre- 
ceding word, or group of words; e. g., "John is in good business, and is 
likely to remain 50." 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the Adverbs in the following sentences; — ^tell the class to 
which they belong. 

It rained yesterdav almost incessaiitlv. The work is done 
faithfully. Will you be here next week ? We must leave 
immediately or we shall not reach the boat in time to secure a 
berth. The weather is extremely cold for the season. When 
do you go below ? Thomas was politely received, and invited 
to remain. Emma sings sweetly. Our hall was lately injured 
by fire. Rufiis studies diligently, and is a very attentive 
pupil. Can you run backward as fast as forward ? The man 
was pooi'ly clad. Henry has waited patiently for more than 
an hour. You are always so fast or so slow. John saw him 
only. The stage leaves long before noon. God is present 
everywhere. Beasts should be kindly treated. He was truly 
a great man, and deserves our esteem. You must read more 
attentively if you expect to improve. Is your book where you 



ADVERB. — CONJUNCTIVE. — COMPARISON. 153 

left it ? George was earnestly entreated to remain. Shonld it 
rain to-morrow the lecture will be postponed. Because the 
wicked do not receive their just deserts immediately, they 
grow bold in transgression and sin. John has solved the 
problem correctly. Human prudence should be rightly under- 
stood. One can easily imagine himself rich. How soon we 
forgit our misdeeds. Perhaps you can tell the reason. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

§ 251. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which give a de- 
pendent clause an adverbial relation, and connect it with the 
verb, adjective, or adverb, wdiich it modifies ; e. g., " I shall 
see you lohen you come." 

Remark 1. — Conjunctive adverbs are equivalent to two phrases, the 
one contaiomg a relative pronoun, and the other its antecedent ; e. g., 
"The hlies grow where the ground is moist." Here the phrase in that 
place modifies groiu, and the phrase in which modifies moist; hence 
where, the equivalent of the two, modifies both. 

Remark 2. — The words which are used as conjunctive adverbs, are 
sucli as when, where, while, whither, whence, &c. 

Remark 3. — These words are not always conjunctive adverbs ; some 
of them are sometimes used instead of adjuncts containing interrogative 
pronouns ; e. g., ' • When (at luhat time) will ho come ?" 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

§ 252. Most Adverbs, especially those denoting manner, 
admit of comparison ; e.g., "Jolin speaks more fluently Xhdin 
Thomas." 

Remark 1. — Most adverbs ending in ly are compared by more and 
most; e. g., Wisely, more wisely, mx)st wisely. 

7* 



154 ADVERB. — EXEHCISES.— MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Remark 2. — A few are compared by adding er and est] e. g., Soon, 
sooner^ soonest. 

Remark 3. — The following are irregularly compared; badly or ill; 
worsCj worst; little^ less, least; much, more, most; well, better, best. 



EXERCISES. 

Compare the following Adverbs : 

Adroitly, coolly, famously, soon, near, little, well, much, 
joyfully, pensively, ill, politely, cleverly, poorly, stupidly, 
richly, quickly, highly. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 
In parsing an Adverb, tell 

1. What part of speech it is; (why ?) 

2. Compare it, (when it adults of it,) and tell the degree ; 

3. Tell what it modifies ; 

4. Give the rule. 

" Alfred studies diligently." ** Diligently^^ is an Adverb of the Positive 
degree, {Pos. diligently, Comp. more diligently, Sup. most diligently,) and 
modifies the verb studies, according to 

Rule XIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and sometimes other 
adverbs. 

"Mary writes more elegantly than her brother." ^^ More eleganthf is 
an Adverb of the Comparative degree, {Pos. elegantly, Comp. more 
elegantly, Sup. most elegantly,) and modifies the verb writes, according to 

lluLE XIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, &c. 

" James will go whenever you wish." " Whenever'''' is a Conjunctive 
Adverb. It gives the dependent clause an adverbial relation, and con- 



ADVERB. — EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 155 

nects it with the verb will go ; it modifies both will go and wish^ accord- 
ing to 

Rule XIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, &c. 

The instrument is placed where it belongs. George and 
James improve rapidly. I think I know the man when I see 
him. The sun shines pleasantly. Flowers soon fade. Glass 
is easily broken. William conducted very properly. The 
question may be settled without much difiiculty. God is al- 
ways present, his eye never slumbers. Did you ever see such 
a carelessly written composition ? Boys should rise early, if 
they would accomplish much. "We heard a very amusing 
anecdote about one of the Judson girls. A diligent man al- 
ways finds time to converse with his friends. Mother severely 
reprimanded Carrie for her negligence and inattention. 

Whatever is done willingly, in general is done well. Henry 
will be w^ell prepared when the time arrives. Mary draws and 
paints well. I will ga because she wishes to see me. Mattio 
may return whenever she wishes. Father consented after 
much persuasion. Thomas wrote the letter but a few days 
since. Thomas will remain while you are absent. Martha 
disobeyed the rule, although she knew it w^as wrong to do so. 
Hattie will come as soon as her engagements permit. A 
generous man bestows his favors seasonably. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write three sentences containing an adverb in hj. Write 
three containing a conjunctive adverb. W^rite three containing 
an adverb of time. Write three containing an adverb of place. 
Write three containinor an adverb of number. Write three 
containing an adverb of degree. Write three containing an 
adverb of affirmation or denial. 



156 PREP0SITI0IT3. — OBSEKVATIONS. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is an Adv^erb ? 

How may an Adverb be known ? 

What are the principal classes of Adverbs? 

What is a Conjunctive Adverb? 

How are Adverbs in ly compared ? 

Compare soon^ little^ &c., &c. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 253. A Preposition is a word used to show 
the relation between a noun or pronoun and some 
preceding word; e. g., "Washington was the 
father of his country;" "Uncle went from Co- 
lumbia to Charleston." 

Explanation. — " Wasliinccfon was the father of his Conn** 
try ;" " Uncle went from Columbia to Charleston." In the 
foregoing examples q/* expresses the relation between /a^Aer and 
country ; from^ the relation between wsnt and Columbia ; and 
<o, the relation between went and Charleston. 

OBSEKYATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Every rolrition necessarily implies more than ono object 
Of the words related, the former is called the antecedent term of the rela- 
tion, and the latter the subsequent term. The antecedent term may bo a 
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, or conjunction. The subsequent 
term may be a nouu or pronoun. 



PREPOSITIONS. —LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



15 



Remark 2. — The preposition and its subsequent term form an adjunct, 
limiiing the antecedent term ; e. g., The city of New Orleans. 

RemaPwK 3. — The preposition always shows the relation of dependence. 
When the antecedent term is a noun, its adjunct partakes of the nature of 
an adjective; e. g., "The rays of the sun" == solar rays. 

"When the antecedent term is a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, 
the adjunct has the nature of an adverb ; e. g., "The case was conducted 
with skill" = skilfully. 

Remark 4. — The object of a preposition is not always a single word ; 
it may be a phrase or clause ; e. g., *' The city was about to capitulate 
when Xapoleon arrived." " Much \\ ill depend on who the commissioners 
are. 

Remark 5. — The sign ^ of the infinitive mood is not a preposition, buJ 
a verbal prefix belonging to the verb to indicate its peculiar form. 

Remark 6. — Every preposition requires an object after it; e. g., 
" George is obedient to his parents." A preposition without a regimen 
becomes an adverb ; e. g., " He has gone &e/bre." 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



About. 


At. 


Down. 


Above. 


Athwart. 


During. 


Abroad. 


Before. 


Except. 


According to. 


Behind. 


Excepting. 


Across. 


Below. 


For. 


After. 


Beside. ) 
Besides. ) 


From. 


Against. 


In, into. 


Along. 


Beneath. 


Notwithstanding 


Amid. ) 
Amidst. ) 


Between. 


Of. 


Betwixt. 


Off. 


Among. 


Beyond. 


On. 


Amongst. 


By. 


Out of. 


Around. 


Concerning. 


Over. 



158 



PREPOSITIONS. — EXERCISES. 



Past. 


Till. 


Until. 


Kegarding. 


To. 


Unto. 


EespectiiJg. 


Touching. 


Up. 


Round. 


Toward. ) 
Towards. ) 


Upon. 


Since. 


With. 


Throuojh. 


Under. 


Within. 


Tbrouo^hout. 


Underneatli. 


Without. 



§ 254. ^, in the sense of at^ in^ on, to, or 6y, is a preposi- 
tion in such expressions as a hunting, a going, a reading ; e. g., 
"He set it in motion, and kept it a going,^^ 

§ 255. According, concerning, during, excepting, regarding^ 
and respecting, were originally participles. They are now re- 
garded as prepositions. 

§ 256. Like, worth, and hut in the sense of except are used 
as prepositions. 

EXERCISES. 



Point out the Prepositions in the following exercises. 

Our teacher resides in that house. The candidates entered 
into many explanations. A crystal stream flows beneath the 
ice. The company were seated by the fire, for the day was 
cold. The eagle soars majestically through the air.. The 
steamer will leave soon after sunrise. That book is behind the 
times. Is the money of your banks below par ? When I en- 
tered the counting-room the clerk was standing before the desk. 
My father has been sick above a month and unable to leave 
his room. The hawk flew over the broad river. The favor 
was granted on certain conditions. His tender mercies are 
over all his works, \yashington was a general of the greatest 
valor and prudence. 



PREPOSITIONS. — MODEL FOR PARSING. 159 

My son, ^valk in the path of virtue, if you would escape the 
thousand besetments of life. ^Vlfred found the book in the road 
on his way to school. My knife is worth a dollar. The voice 
of nature cries from the tomb. Peter said unto them, I go a 
fishino*. Mv uncle went from Rome to Paris. And he rea- 
soned with them out of the Scriptures. The buds are swelling 
in the w\arm rays of the sun. The hills are covered with a 
carpet of green. Mary and Susan had a pleasant w^alk with 
their friends. We have come to seek the early fruits in your 
sunny valley. He was highly honored for his gallant conduct 
in rescuing so many from a watery grave. He lived in the 
greatest seclusion like an anchorite of old. Who shall be 
queen of May ? General Taylor was esteemed for his courage 
rather than his prudence. 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 

In parsing a Preposition^ tell 

1. What part of speech ; (w^hy ?) 

2. Between what words it shows the relation ; 

3. Give the rule. 

""We went from Montgomery to New York." "i^/*o?7i" is a Preposi- 
tion. It shows the relation between the noun Montgomery and the verb 
went, according to 

Rule IX. — A preposition is a word used to show the relation between 
a noun or pronoun and some precedir.g word. 

" 7b" is a preposition. It shows the relation between the noun New 
York and the verb went, according to 

KuLE IX. — A preposition is a word, &c. 



160 PREPOSITIONS. — MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"The brother of Richard I. usurped the throne." " Of^ is a preposi- 
tion. It shows the relation of Richard to brother^ according to 

Rule IX. — A preposition is a word, &o. 

The watchmen are on their guard. James is without fear. 
William is in the garden behind the house. Alfred ran across 
the field into the house. He was my companion in adversity. 
According to my impression he is in fault. The merchant 
lives within his income. You may expect a calm after a storm. 
The tower was on the top of the hill. Martha was walking 
towards the house. Let us walk through the garden. We 
passed by the church on our way home. The soldiers have all 
gone but one regiment. Instead of friends we found enemies. 
My uncle's residence is near the Exchange. It happened dur- 
ing the present administration. He was buried with his mar- 
tial cloak around him. My friend has an estate worth fifty 
thousand dollars. The progress from virtue to vice is progress- 
ive. Matilda was at home when I called. 

A long friendship has existed between us. It is my request, 
that you should all come in the house. As little as you may 
suppose there is something very mysterious in this affair. It 
was properly observed a short time since by one of the com- 
pany, that favors ave not always bestowed on the most deserv- 
ing. My friend Perry of Tuskeegee has but little use for him. 
I find great difficulty in expressing my sentiments on this sub- 
ject for fear of giving offence. I love to hear the birds sing in 
the morning. You may as well attempt to turn the sun into 
ice by fanning it with a peacock's feather. The immense 
quantity of matter in the universe presents a most striking dis- 
play of Almighty power. The rapid motions of the great 
bodies in the heavens demonstrate the infinite power of him 
that formed them. 



PREPOSITIONS. — CONJUNCTIONS. 161 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Turn to the list of prepositions and write short sentences 
containing an example of each. Thus : Birds liy in the air. 
John and William went into the country this morning. Uncl« 
walks with a cane. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a Preposition ? 

What is implied in every relation ? 

What is the former called ? the latter ? 

AVhat is said of the antecedent term ? 

The subsequent ? 

What is an adjunct ? 

When the antecedent term of the preposition is a noun, what 

is the nature of the adjunct? 
When it is a verb, participle, adjective or adverb? 
What is said of the object of a preposition ? 
What is said of the si^cn to of the infinitive ? 
What does every preposition require ? 
What is said of the preposition without a regimen ? 
What is said of a in the sense of af, in, on, to, &c. ? 
What is said of according, concerning, during, &c. ? 
of like, worth, &c. ? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 257. A Conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect words or propositions ; e. g., " Susan and 
Mary know that they have disobeyed." 



162 CONJUNCTIONS. — CLASSIFICATION. 

Explanation. — " Susan and Mary know that they have dis- 
obeyed." Here and connects the words Susan and Mary^ and 
that the propositions " Susan and Mary know" and " they have 
disobeyed.' 



1 ?> 



OBSERYATIONS. 

Remark 1. — A pure conjunction forms no part of the material or sub- 
stance of a sentence ; its ofBce is simply to unite the materials into a 
singlo structure. 

Remark 2. — Connective words are of four kinds; — relative pronouns, 
adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. These resemble one another so 
far as they are all connectives, yet they possess characteristic dififerences 
by which they are readily distinguished. Relative pronouns represent 
antecedents, and are declined; conjunctive adverbs have a connective 
power in addition to their adverbial character and consequently sustain a 
double relation ; conjunctions (except expletives) connect words or sen- 
tences, showing their relation to each other or something else ; preposi- 
tions, though subject to some preceding word, take a noun or pronoun 
afier them to complete their relation, and in this they differ from all 
the rest. 

Remark 3.— Conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences, and 
sometimes particular words. "When a whole sentence is closely linked 
with another, both become clauses or members of a more complex sen- 
tence ; and when a word or phrase is coupled with another, both have in 
general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sen- 
tence. In parsing, the terms connected should always be specified. 



CLASSIFICATION. 

§ 258. Conjunctions are of two classes; Coordinate and 
Suhordinate, 

Explanation. — A Coordinate Conjunction is one that 
connects elements of equal rank ; e. g., " Time is short, and 
art is long." 



CONJU^^CTIONS —CLASSIFICATION. 1G3 

A Subordinate Conjunction is one thnt connects clement? 
of unequal rank; e. g\, "Henry will go (/'Tlionias remains." 

§ 259. Coordinate Connectives are always conjunctions. 
They may be divided into three classes; Copulative^ Adversa- 
tive^ and Alternative, 

§ 260. Copulative Conjunctions are those which unite parts 
in harmony with each other ; e. g., "The dav dawned, and w^o 
left for home." 

The Copulative Conjunctions are, 

(1.) And, a connective of the general character, placing the parts con- 
nected in a relation of perfect equality. 

(2.) SOy also^ likewise, too, besides, moreover, furtherraore, now, hence, 
whence, therefore, wherefore, consequently, even, connectives associated wit) 
and expressed or understood, and used to give emphasis or some ad- 
ditional idea; e. g., "Emma sings; (and) besides she plays beautifully." 

(3.) Not only but, but also, but likewise, as well as, both 

and, first secondly, thU'dly, &c. ; connectives employed when wq 

wish to make the second part emphatic, but awaken the expectation 
of some addition. As these parts correspond to each other, their con- 
nectives are called correlatives. 

§ 261. Adversative Conjunctions are those w^hich unite 
parts in opposition to, or in contrast with each other ; e. g., 
"The fish was brought to the shore, hut plunged into the water 
again." 

Explanation". — Adversative Conjunctions are employed, 
(1.) When the second part is placed in opposition to the first ; e. g., 
" It does not rain, but it hails." 

(2.) When the second part is placed in opposition to a supposed in- 
ference from the first ; e. g., " The army was victorious, but the genei'al 
was slain." 

The Adversative Conjunctions are, 

(1.) But, which simply shows opposition without emphasis; e. g., 
" I shall go, hut I shall ride." 



164 CONJUNCTIONS. — CLASSIFICATION. 

(2.) Yet, siillj nevertheless, noiwiilisianding, "however, noiv, and some 
others which are associated with tut either expressed or understood, and 
give emphasis or some additional idea; e. g., "The delinquent has been 
frequently admonished, (but) still he is as negligent as ever." 

§ 262. Alternative Conjunctions are those which offer or 
deny a choice between two things ; e. g., " We must fight, or 
our liberties will be lost." 

The Alternative Conjunctions are, 
(1.) Or, which offers, and nor (not or,) which denies a choice. 
(2.) Else, otherwise, associated with or for the sake of emphasis. 
(3.) Either and neither, correlatives of or and nor. 

§ 263. Subordinate Connectives are those which join dis- 
similar elements ; e. g., " I shall go when the stage arrives." 
Subordinate connectives are divided into three classes ; those 
■which connect substantive clauses, those which connect adjec- 
tive clauses, and those which connect adverbial clauses. 

(1.) Substantive clauses containing a statement are connected by the 
conjunctions that, that not, and sometimes hut, hut that. Substantive 
clauses containing an inquiry are connected by the interrogatives who, 
which, what, where, whither, whence, when, how long, how often, why, 
wherefore, how, 

(2.) Adjective clauses are connected by the relative pronouns who, 
which, what, that, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, 
whatsoever, and sometimes the relative adverbs why, when, where. 

(3.) Adverbial clauses are connected by the conjunctive adverbs where, 
whither, whence, wherever, whithersoever, as far aSy as long as, further than, 
which denote place ; when, while, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, 
since, wherever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the instant, as frequently 
as, as often as, which denote time ; or the conjunctions "because, for, as. 
whereas, inasmuch (causal), if, unless, though, lest, except, provided, pro- 
vided that, (conditional,) that, that not, lest, (final,) though, although, not- 
withstanding, however, whatever, luhoever, whichever, while, with tlic cor- 
relatives yet, still, nevertheless, (adversative,) which denote causal relations; 
as, just as, so as, same as, (correspondence,) so that, such 



COXJUNCTIOXS. — EXERCISES. 165 



that, (consequence,) as as^ (comparison of equality,) the 



the, tfie 50 much the, (proportionate equality,) than, more than^ less 

ihaUf (comparison of inequality,) which denote manner. 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the Conjunctions in the following exercises; — ^tell what they 
connect. 

Jane and Martha have been carefully educated, but to little 
purpose. I will walk that you may ride. Were the passen- 
geis or the driver injured ? Alfred or Willis will go to Auburn 
in a few days. He wrote the book, because it afforded him 
amusement. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitu- 
tion. He w^as poor though he might have been rich. Susan 
and Mary are taking lessons in drawing. I will see you when 
you come. He cannot tell how it was done. You can see 
him here or at his office. The w^omen also were present. 
Your fjither inquired when I beard from cousin Robert. Did 
you know that your sister had returned ? It is uncertain 
whether the truth will be made to appear. 

It is not certain when letters were first used. Your horse is 
not lame but blind. It is now evident that the bill will be de- 
feated. That honor and fame are the offspring of labor, is the 
eternal law of nature. My desire is that you may succeed. 
.John is wiser than his teacher. They have more than they 
need. He controls both public and private affairs. Give us 
such things as you please. His liabilities are such that he 
must fail. Mary speaks so low that she is not heard. Vice 
stings us in our pleasures; but virtue consoles us in our pains. 
As cold waters are to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far 
country. The cars have arrived, therefore we must go. Ye 
shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it lest ye die. 



166 COl^JITNCTIONS. — MODEL FOE PARSIl^Q. 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 
In parsing a Conjunction^ teU — 

1. "What part of speech ; (why ?) 

2. To what class it belongs ; 

3. "What it connects ; 

4. Give the rule. 

"Peter and John went to the temple." " AncP^ is a Conjunction; it is 
used to connect words or sentences ; Coordinate, because it connects 
similar elements; it connects Peter and John, according to 

Rule XIV. — Conjunctions connect words and propositions. 

" Grold is more valuable than silver." " T/ian'^ is a Conjunction ; it is 
used to connect words or propositions ; Subordinate, because it connects 
dissimilar elements ; it connects the proposition than silver {w) with 
valuable^ according to 

EuLE XIV. — Conjunctions connect, &c. 

"We must either obey or be punished." " Either'''' is a Coordinate Con- 
junction, (alternative,) used to awaken expectation of an additional ele- 
ment, and also to introduce it with emphasis. 

" Or" is a Coordinate Conjunction, (alternative,) and with its correlative 
either is used to connect the element he punished with iniLst oheij, accord- 
ing to 

Rule XIV. — Conjunctions connect, <S:c. 

" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." " Though^^ is a Sub- 
ordinate Conjunction, (adversative,) used to awaken expectation of an 
additional idea. 

" YeV is a Subordinate Conjunction, (adversative,) and with its correla- 
tive though is used to connect the subordinate clause ^''he will slay ??ie," 
with the principal one, " will I trust in him,^^ according to 

Rule XIV. — Conjunctions connect, &c. 



CONJUNCTIONS.— EXERCISES. 167 

Tliomas and Henry arc diligent pupils. You must study 
liard if you would obtain a liigh position in your class. Do 
you think that Robert will succeed ? Sarah writes rapidly but 
very carelessly. You must get father's consent or I cannot go 
with you. I have not the means or I would accommodate you. 
Idleness and ignorance produce many vices. When sickness, 
infirmity or misfortune affect us, the sincerity of friendship is 
proved. Either Charles or Robert saw him. George and John 
are more studious than William. I cannot doubt that he is 
an honest man. She fears lest it may not be true. Neither 
Georo^e nor James can do it. 

There never was such a time for speculation of every kind 
as the present affords. Do you think Clay as able in debate 
as Webster ? John can read as well as Thomas. Mr. Smith 
is so debilitated that he cannot walk. Rufus is not so wise as 
he supposed. Whether he wnll go or remain is not determined. 
I am debtor to both you and your brother, for many favors 
that I hope to be able to reciprocate. He assured us that 
not only his time, but also his character as an artist, was 
at stake. As the stars, so shall thy seed be. We do not 
expect to remain in town during the summer, but to visit 
Saratoga or some fashionable resort. In Russia as well as 
almost every other country, the peasantry constitute the great- 
est number. 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of a Coordinate 
Conjunction. Five containing an example of a Subordinate 
Conjunction, 



168 EXCLAMATIONS. — LIST. 

QUESTIONS. 

"What IS a Conjunction ? 

What is said of a Pure Conjunction ? 

What is its office ? 

How many kinds of Connective words are there ? 

Tell the difference. 

How are Conjunctions classed? 

What is a Coordinate Conjunction ? 

Subordinate? 

What is said of Coordinate Connectives ? 

How are they divided ? 

What is a Copulative Conjunction ? 

Adversative ? Alternative ? 

How are Subordinate Conjunctions divided ? 



EXCLAMATIONS. 

§ 264. An Exclamation is a word used to ex- 
press some sudden emotion of the mind ; e. g.. 
" Oj haste my father's heart to cheer !" 

Explanation. — As the Exclamation is not a sign of thought, 
but merely an expression of emotion, it cannot have any de- 
finable signification, or grammatical construction. 

LIST OF EXCLAMATIONS. 

^ 265. The following is a list of the principal Exclama- 
tions : 

O ! Oh ! ah ! eh ! ha ! hah ! aha ! alas ! alack ! hold ! ho ! 
shame ! hail ! lo ! look ! see ! hush ! hist ! fie ! fob ! pshaw ! 



EXCLAMATIONS. — OBSERVATIONS. — EXERCISES. 169 

pngli ! fudge ! tush ! tut ! hey ! heyday ! heigh-ho ! mum ! 
avaunt! avast! away! bah! huzza! hurra! hallo! hem! adieu! 
bravo! indeed! welcome! what! strange! farewell! 



OBSERYATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Some words belonging to other classes are called Ex- 
clamations when uttered in an unconnected and forcible manner; e. g,, 
Strange I wonderful 1 away 1 ^ 

Remark 2. — should be used only before words in direct address or to 
express a wish; — Oh, when you wish to express pain, sorrow or surprise; 
e. g., " virtue!" " Oh! how can it be?" 

Remark 3. — The exclamation is equivalent to a simple sentence or an 
abbreviated sentence; e. g., Farewell — "go well." 



EXERCISES. 

Toint out the Exclamations in the following exercises : 

Model. — "Alas! he died in early years,'* Alas is the Exclamation. 
" An exclamation is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the 
mind." 

O Lord ! how great is thy goodness! ^el what are you 
grumbling about? Welcome! my dearest friend. Hold boys! 
now for fun. Puo'h ! that fellow is a goose. Indeed ! it is 
Matili'a herself. Pshaw ! try it again. Hush ! I will not hear 
you speak thus. Alas ! when evil abounds life has no pleasure. 
O sun ! whence thy risinor beams ? O, make mv efrave where 
the suiibL'ams rest ! Alas ! my poor country. Really ! is it 
true? Ball! I have caught you now. Dear me! what are 
you doing ? Alas ! the remedy came too late to avail. O, I 
shall love the sea because it is his grave. Hark ! they whisper, 
angels say, '' Sister spirit ! come away !" lie died, alas ! in 

8 



170 EXCLAMATIONS. — MODEL FOR PARSHSTG. 

early youth far from home and friends. How different would 
have been our lot this day, both as men and citizens, had the 
Eevolution failed of success ! 

" Alas! when evil men are strong. 
No life is good, no pleasure long." 



MODEL FOR PARSING. 

To parse an Exclamation, tell-^ 

1. What part of speech ; (why ?) 

2. Give the rule. 

" 0, lightly, lightly tread I" "0" is an Exclamation ; it is used to ex- 
press some sudden emotion of the mind ; it has no grammatical connection 
with any other word. 

BuLE XY. — Exclamations have no grammatical relation to other words. 

.0 sister ! I want that beautiful flow^er. Alas ! my mother 
died, and left me an orphan to the kindness of strangers. O 
Jane! how could you do as you have done? virtue ! how 
amiable thou art ! Hold ! where are you going so fast this 
morning ? Indeed ! it was very fortunate for you. Mercy ! 
what are you about ? Fudge ! I do not care what they say. 
Adieu, my friend ! may we meet again ! Farewell ! may hap- 
piness attend your path ! Astonishing ! what do you mean ? 
Hush ! do you want the town to hear you ? Hist ! what noise 
was that ? Heyday ! what next ? Hush ! the tutor is at the 
door. Mum ! can you keep a secret ? Shame ! would you 
kill the poor dog? Dear me ! you are very lucky. See! this 
is just what I wanted. Bravo! that was well done. 



J 



WORDS BELONGING TO DIFFERENT CLASSES. 171 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of an Exclama- 
tion of wonder. Five containing an Exclamation of joy. Five 
of earnest wishing, or vocative address. Five of laughter. Five 
of calling to silence. Five of pain. Five of parley. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is an Exclamation ? 

What its grammatical relation ? 

How should be used ? Oh ? 

To what is an Exclamation equivalent? 



WORDS BELONGING TO DIFFERENT CLASSES. 

§ 266. Many words are alike in form, but be- 
long to different classes. They are distinguished 
by their use and meaning. 

§ 267. The following table embraces those commonly used 
in this manner. 

As is an adverb when joined to an adverb or an adjective, in 
the sense oi so; e. g., "James does as well as he can." 

In all other cases it is a conjunction ; e. g., " Robert did 
as he was directed." 
But, in the sense of orily^ is an adverb ; e. g., " But one per- 
son was present." In the sense of except^ it is a preposition ; 
e. g., " All but Henry came." 

In all other cases it is a conjunction ; e. g., " Henry asked 
me to go, but I declined." 



172 WORDS BELONGING TO DIFFERENT CLASSES. 

Either is a conjunction when it corresponds to or ; e. g., 
*' Either the one or the other." 

In all other cases it is an adjective; e. g., "Either 
book." 

For, in the sense of because, is a conjunction ; e. g., " I will go, 
for he calls me." 

In all other cases it is a preposition ; e. g., " Alfred 
brouQ:ht the book for me." 

Much is a noun when it stands for quantity ; e. g., " Much has 
been given," 

When joined to a noun it is an adjective ; e. g., " Much 
labor fatigues us." 

In all other cases it is an adverb ; e. g., " Mary's friends 
were much concerned." 

More is a noun when it implies quantity ; e. g., " The more 
we have, the more we want." 

When it modifies a noun it is an adjective ; e. g., " The 
more joy I have, the more I want." 

Used in comparison it is an adverb ; e. g., " My pupil 
is more obedient than yours." 

Notwithstanding is used as a preposition ; e. g., " Notwith- 
standing his merit, he was but little esteemed." 

It is also a conjunction ; e. g., " He is respected, not- 
withstanding he is poor." 

That is a relative when wJio or which may be substituted for 
it and the sense remain the same ; e. g., " This is the man 
that (who) came by the cars last evening." 

When joined to a noun it is an adjective; e. g., " That 
man is intellio-ent." 

In all other cases it is a conjunction ; e, g., " I tell you 
that you must study." 



WORDS BELONGING TO BIFFEKENT CLASSES. 173 

Then, in tlie sense of therefore^ is a conjunction ; e. g., "If he 
has commanded it, then I must obey." 

When it refers to time it is an adverb ; e. g., " I rest not, 
then, on this argument." 
What is a relative when the antecedent is indefinite ; e. g., 
" He got what he wanted." 

When joined to a noun it is an adjective ; e. g., "What 
man is that ?" 

When used to express wonder it is an exclamation ; e. g., 
** What ! take my money ?" 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — But is an adverb when only may be used in its 
place. It has been made to assume this meaning by the omis- 
sion of the negative which was originally used with it ; e. g., 
Our light affliction, which is not " but for a moment." 

Remark 2. — ^It is asserted by some grammarians that that^ 
in all those cases in which it is called a conjunction, is merely 
a pronoun, standing for a sentence or part of a sentence. They 
resolve this sentence, " I wish you to believe that I would not 
hurt a fly," in the following manner ; " I would not hurt a fly ; 
I wish you to believe that assertion^ What would Home 
Took say to this ? 

Remark 3. — In such sentences as the following, so and so as 
are usually considered conjunctions ; e. g., " She is as amiable 
as her sister;" "No lamb was e'er so mild as he." In these 
sentences as and so properly are adverbs, used instead of ad- 
juncts. 



174 SYNTAX. —OBSERVATIONS. — EXERCISES. 



SYNTAX. 

§ 268. Syntax treats of the Construction of 
Propositions, their Connection and Dependence. 

§ 269. A Proposition consists of a Subject and 
Predicate. 

§ 270. The Subject of a proposition is that of 
which something is affirmed; e. g., '^ John runs." 

§ 271. The Predicate expresses what is af- 
firmed of the Subject ; e. g., '' John runs J' 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — The word affirm, as here used, includes all the 
various significations of the verb, as expressed by the different 
moods and tenses. 

Remark 2. — The name of the object addressed does not 
form a part of the proposition ; e. g., " William, John runs." 

Remark 3. — In interrogations, the subject is often placed 
after the verb ; e. g., " What says the professor P 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Subject and Predicate in the following propositions ; — 
tell how you know them. 

Model. — " John runs'^ is a Proposition, because it contains a Subject 
and Predicate. 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 175 

^^ John''^ is the Sul^ject, because it is that of wbicb the Proposition 
Ipeaks. 

" Runs*'' is the Predicate, because it expresses what is affirmed of the 
Subject John, 

Horses gallop. Children play. Boys recite. God exists. 
Charles writes. Alfred swims. Sarah rejoices. Susan walks. 
Man sins. Death comes. Virtue triumphs. Dogs bark. 
Marv reads. Birds sino\ "Water flows. Loo-icians reason. 
Bees hum. William saw. Politicians dispute. Memory fa Ls. 
Exercises Avere written. James recited to his sister. Mary 
corresponds with her brother. Rufus escaped punishment. 
AVhere is John ? Stay with me until sister returns. Blessed 
are the peacemakers. What is man ? 

Ink fades. Henry was a scholar. James, bring me a book. 
Study your lesson. Where are you going ? Honor thy father 
and thy mother. Hannah is a grammarian. Washington 
was a general. Hope is the balm of life. Contentment is a 
great blessing. Richard is the life of the company* The sky 
is quite clear. The river is deep and rapid. When will Wil- 
liam return from college ? Did you see Stone Mountain ? 
Apples will soon be ripe. Robert has bought a new cap. 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

1. TVrite Predicates to the following subjects. 
Model. — Children play. Dogs lark. Fish swim, 

Henry. Religion. Knowledge. Happiness. Father. Vir- 
tue. Grammar. Man. Thomas. Horses. Fruit. Tempta- 
tion. Rain. George. Prospect. Flowers. Garden. Orch- 
ard. Fox. Arithmetic. Money. Intemperance. Labor. 
Columbus. Washington. Moon. Armies. Stars. Insects. 
Grass. Winter. Autumn. Historians. Night. Philosophy. 



176 SXNTAX.— SUBJECT. 

2. TTrito Subjects to the following predicates. 

Model. — Wrestling is dangerous. Charles reads. Washington con- 
quered. 

Was a ptilosoplier ; strengthens; are plants; diflfer; de- 
termined ; was cruel ; was a poet ; prevails ; was divided ; is 
wise ; were temperate ; is a teacher ; are deep and rapid ; is 
delighted ; must come ; showed to advantage ; saw the trans 
action ; wrote the letter ; is my warmest friend ; should be 
the study of all men ; is the best preserver of health ; taught 
him to write ; was the life of the company ; was attentive to 
his business. 



SUBJECT. 

§ 272. The Subject of a Proposition is either 
Grammatical or Logical. 

§ 273. The Grammatical Subject is either a 
nouiij or some word standing in the place of a 
noun; e. g.;^ ''John spoke to William;" ^^jGT^ was 
reading the paper." • 

§ 274. The Logical Subject consists of the 
Grammatical with its various modifications ; e. g., 
"A cheerful temper affords great delight;" ''The 
love of industry is commendable." 



Remark. — When the Grammatical Subject is not modi- 
fied, it is tlie same as the Logical ; e. g., " Thomas writes 



exercises." 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 177 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Grammatical and Logical Subjects in the following exer- 
cises. 

Model. — " Brother William wrote to uncle yesterday." " Brother^^ is 
the Grammatical Subject. " The Grammatical Subject is either a Noun 
or some word standing in place of a noun." 

" Brother William^^ is the Logical Snbject. '*The Logical Subject con- 
sists of the Grammatical, mth its various modifications." 

" The love of industry is commendable." " ioue" is the Grammatical 
Subject. " The Grammatical Subject is," &c. 

"T/ie love of industry^^ is the Logical Subject. "The Logical Subject 
consists," &c. 

Truth is more wonderful than fiction. An lionest man is 
God's noblest w^ork. Foster studies to improve his mind. 
Alfred has prepared the recitation. Bad boys often do wTong, 
A cheerful temper affords great delight. The old man has 
melons for sale. Do -you want any? Unripe fruit is not 
"wholesome. Children should obey their parents. The prospect 
before the lawn w^as much admired by the stranger. John's 
exercises were badly w^ritten. Sarah Jane's composition is not 
only neatly written, but correctly punctuated. Industry is the 
best substitute for genius. William rises early in the morning. 
Kufus speaks the language of truth. Joseph's brethren came 
and bowed down before him. Minnie went after her slate. A 
walk in the field in the summer season is refreshing. Hasty 
promises are seldom kept. Future time is yet to come. Cor- 
rupt conversation should be avoided. By framing excuses, he 
prolonged his stay. Either road w^ill conduct you to the right 
place. Protest not rashly. A part of the men were lost. The 
council were divided in their sentiments. Cicero, the orator^ 
flourished in the time of Catiline. 



8* 



178 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

§ 275. The subject of a proposition is either 
Simple or Compound. 

§ 276. A Simple Subject is a single noun^ or 
word standing for a noun, either alone or variously 
modified; e. g., ''Life is short;" "The longed life 
of man is short." 

Eemark. — The modified simple subject is called, by some writers, the 
complex subject. 

§ 277. A Compound Subject consists of two 
or more simple subjects to which one predicate 
belongs ; e. g., '' The moon and stars were shining 
bright ;" '' This most excellent man^ and that con- 
summate villain, were born in the same town. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Subject in the following propositions ; — tell whether it is 
Simple or Compound. 

Model. — '• The longest life of man is short." " The longest life of marC^ 
is the Subject. It is Simple, because it consists of but one term. 

" This most excellent man, and that consummate villain, were born in 
the same town." " This most excellent man, and thai consummate vil- 
lain^^'' is the Subject. It is Compound, because it consists of more terms 
than one. 

Time and tide wait for no man. John will remain here un- 
til Monday. Contentment and humility are rich blessings. 
The sea was very boisterous. Susan's conduct towards her 
sister was generous in the extreme. John or James will start 
for the plantation in the morning. Kind and generous men 
are highly esteemed. Francis and Elizabeth are good pupils. 



SYNTAX. — MODIFIED SUBJECT. 179 

The reo^iment consists of a thousand men. Walkinir and 
riding are healthy exercises. John sold his watch yesterday. 
Exposure was the cause of his sickness. John and Thomas 
are of equal attainments. Virtue and vice are often treated 
alike. 

Your estimate for the work is too high. The citizens have 
met to confer on interesting business. You and I can do it. 
What harm has Alfred done ? Socrates the philosopher and 
friend to his country was condemned to death. Then rushed 
the steeds to battle driven. I lent my knife and pencil to Ed- 
win. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. In unity 
consists the welfare and security of society. William and 
Henry are brothers. Righteousness exalteth a nation. A 
mind open to flattery is always in danger. Day and night 
Bhall not cease. Human knowledge is progressive. Have 
William and George violated the pledge? 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION 

Write five sentences containing an example of a Simple 
Subject. Write five containing an example of a Compound 
Subject. 



MODIFIED SUBJECT. 

§ 278. Words are said to modify or limit each 
other^ when they serve to explain, describe^ en- 
large, restrict, or otherwise qualify their meaning. 

§ 279. The Grammatical Subject may be mo- 
dified or limited in different ways : 



180 SYNTAX.- — EXERCISES. 

1. By a noun in apposition annexed for explanation; e.g., 
** Mucins tlie augur related many things ;" " Brother James 
has gone to New Orleans." 

2. By a noun in the possessive case ; e. g., " WllliartibS 
prospect brightens daily ;" " Washington's army, after repeated 
difficulties, conquered." 

3. By an adjunct ; e. g., " The love of moneij prevailed." 
" The voice of truth will be heard." 

4. By an adjective or participle ; e. g., " A horse neighs ;" 
" The flowers fade ;" " Short pleasure produces long pain ;" 
" All men die ;" " He shouting made the onset." 

5. By a relative clause ; e. g., " The man who risks the 
least J is not always the most safe ;" " The boy who studies will 
improve." 

6. By an infinitive ; e. g., " A desire to improve is com- 
mendable;" "A disposition to excel will stimulate him to 
exertion." 

Y. By an entire clause ; e. g., '' The opinion that the repub- 
lican form of government is the best is no longer problem- 
atical ;" " A belief that God is merciful affords consolation." 

Remark. — A noun may be modified in any of tlio above ways, even 
when it is not the grammatical subject; e. g., "Washington, the Father 
of his country, was beloved by all." Here ^^ Faiher^^ is modified by the, 
"The love of sound learning is commendable." Here ^^learning'^' is modi- 
fied by sound. "I know his devotion to the study of the works of nature." 
Here devotion is modified by the adjunct to the study ; study is modified by 
the adjunct of the works; and works, by the adjunct of nature, 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Subject in each of the following p;. '©positions; — tell 
whether it is Simple or Compound, and how modified. 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 181 

Nero, the emperor, was a cruel tyrant. Bonaparte's energy 
was remarkable. A stream of smoke and flame issued from 
the roof of the house. The whole course of his life was dis- 
tinguished by the desire to do good. Has Charles abandoned 
the enterprise ? The class are studying Modern History 
Peter and John went up into the temple. Socrates and Plato 
were Grecian philosophers. James and William will spend 
Christmas with their aunt in Columbia. The virtuous and the 
good are often neglected. The patriarch Jacob stood in the 
presence of the king. A cool breeze in the summer is refresh- 
inof. The rose which bloomed has faded. The love of sound 
learninof is commendable. An earnest wish for vacation was 
expressed by the school. 

The sound of the sio-nal-ixun broke the stillness of the nio;ht. 
The bird which John killed had built a nest in the wall. The 
gentleman who was so kind to us, when we were in the city, 
died of the fever. He who shuns vice generally practices 
drtue. An indulgent teacher very often does not punish when 
it is deserved. The man who gave Robert that book was an 
intimate friend of his mother. The Romans who conquered 
the world, could not conquer themselves. James rose early 
and finished his exercises. The fact that he was a brilliant 
speaker was noticed by all. Mary and her sister intend to 
study French next session. The multitude eagerly pursue 
pleasure as their chief good. 

Who was the author of Junius' letters has never been 
accurately determined. The bill was presented in proper 
form. Peter the hermit made a pilgrimage. The light of the 
gospel shall shed its cheering beams on distant lands. He 
escaped from the flames with much difficulty. The rolling 
stone gathers no moss. The angry billows dashed against the 
side of the vessel. Sarah, who has finished her task, is ready 



182 SYNTAX. — MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS. 

for recitation. A disposition to befriend the poor should be 
carefully cultivated. Howard is justly celebrated for his 
philanthropy. Jane's pencil is on the desk by the window, 
Franklin was a man of industrious habits. The eager multitude 
were enchained by the fascination of his eloquence. John's in- 
tention to study law was unknown to his friend. Henry and 
Thomas shall be rewarded for their industry and good con- 
duct. 

EXERCISES IN CO MPOS ITIO IST. 

Write five sentences containing an example of a Subject 
modified by a Noun in Apposition. Five containing an ex- 
ample of a Subject modified by a Noun in the Possessive 
Case. Five containing an example of a Subject modified by 
an Adjunct. Five containing an example of a Subject modi- 
fied by a Definitive Adjective. Five containing an example of 
a Subject modified by a Descriptive Adjective. Five contain- 
ing an example of a Subject modified by a Participle. Five 
containing an example of a Subject modified by an Infinitive. 
Five containing an example of a Subject modified by an Entire 
Clause. 

MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING 

WORDS. 

§ 280. Modifying or Limiting Words may 
themselves be modified. 

§ 281. A Noun modifying tlie subject^ may be 
modified in all the ways in which the subject is 
modified. 




SYNTAX. —EXERCISES. 183 

§ 282. An Adjective may be modified: 

1. By an Adjunct ; e. g., "Fatlier repeatedly admonished 
us not to be ^veary of ivell doingP " Demosthenes was super- 
ior to ^schines in eloquence." 

2. By an Adverb ; e. g., "That very large tree has fallen." 
" Trull/ good citizens are often censured." 

3. By an Infinitive ; e.g., "Be ready to hear^hui slow to 
decide,^'' " James is ready to go^"* 

§ 283. An Adverb may be modified : 

1. By an Adjunct; e. g., " It was agreeably to his disposi- 
tiony 

2. By another Adverb ; e. g., " William spoke more openly 
than Robert." " Yours very sincerely." 

Remark. — A modified grammatical subject, regarded as a complex 
idea, may be modified ; e. g., " The old black horse is deady 



i?2XEECISES. 

Point out the Modifying ^ords in the following exercises ; show how 
they are modified. 

Model. — " A crayon is useful for drawing and sketching." 
" UsefuV is modified by the adjunct for drawing and sketching^ — usefu. 
for drawing and sketching. 

The professor noticed your book quite recently. The wish 
for happiness is very general. Prejudice may shut your ears, 
but be assured that the voice of truth will be heard. Nothinor 
is more true than that all bad books have a pernicious tend- 
ency. Washington was superior to most men in perseveranc 
and courage. Mohammed was distinguished for the dignity and 
majesty of his person. There are many men who waste their 
lives in idleness and crime. Howard Caldwell is a vouno: map 



184 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

of distinguished talent. Henry was always a studious pupil. 
Martha is leading a very unhappy life in consequence of her 
sister's conduct. David Ewart was highly esteemed when in 
college. All men of integrity are respected. William was 
always ardently devoted to study. John is ready to recite. 
All good boys love their parents. Robert is expected to re- 
turn long before night. Your book was published quite re- 
cently. 

That large dog has bitten Rover. Wonderful to relate, he 
was punctual to his promise for once. The first two verses 
were sung. Collins, a lad of promise, was educated by a benev- 
olent citizen of Mobile. Barns, the Daguerrian, took an ex- 
cellent copy of the picture. You will find a gold pen very 
useful in writing. A very large tree has blown down across 
the road. That which is very difficult to be performed is often 
praiseworthy in execution. The man who violates the com- 
mandments of God is deserving of punishment. The love of 
money will yet prove his destruction. Robert is leading a very 
profligate life. Julia's sister Sarah is the most idle girl in her 
class. Men of honor command the respect of their acquaint- 
ances. The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. The 
great navigator Columbus was ungratefully treated by his 
country. The emperor Antonius wrote an excellent book. 

Avarice is incompatible with reason. Washington, the first 
president, is buried on the banks of the Potomac. The English 
language is more widely spoken than the French. Cassar hav- 
ing reached the pinnacle of human greatness, perished by assas- 
sination. You cannot prize a good education too highly. The 
wind wails mournfully through the trees. The poot Milton, 
who was blind, possessed a mind well stored with knowledge. 
Your conduct is highly criminal. Misfortune is the lot of all 
men in this life of uncertainty and cares. A disposition to 



SYNTAX.— EXERCISES.— PREDICATE. 185 

love our enemies needs to be cultivated. The American fleet 
has arrived, and will enter port in a few days. Summer showers 
quickly pass. The brave soldier performs his duty with alac- 
rity and delight. An address may be expected in the chapel 
by one of the faculty. 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of a Noun modi- 
fying the Subject, modified by an Adjunct. Five, by an Ad 
jective or Participle. 

Write five sentences containing an example of an Adjective, 
modified by an Adjunct. Five, by an Adverb. Five, by an 
Infinitive. 

Write five sentences containing an example of an Adverb, 
modified by another Adverb. Five, by an Adjunct. 



PREDICATE. 

§ 284. The Predicate^ like the Subject^ is 
either Grammatical or Logical. 

. § 285. The Predicate consists of two parts^ — 
the Verb or Copula^ and that which is asserted by 
it called the Aitribute ; e. g.^ " Snow is ivliiter 

Explanation. — The Copula is some modification of the verb 
to be ; its ofiice is to assert an attribute of the thing to which 
it belongs. 

Remark. — The copula gives vitality to language ; no sentence can be 
formed without it Any number of attributes joined to a subject without 



186 SYNTAX. — OBSERVATIONS. 

it, would not form a proposition. The omission of this important con- 
nective is that which distinguishes the first attempts of children to utter 
their thoughts; e. g., " Candy good,'^^ instead of *' Candy is good." 

§ 286. When the two parts of the predicate 
are united in one word^ that word is always a 
verb ; e. g.^ "^ Matilda paintsT 

Explanation. — It often happens that the Attribute and 
Oopula are united in one word ; e. g., " Birds sing," (are 
singing.) 

Note. — ^Wheu the predicate contains the copula and attribute in one 
word, it may always be resolved into these parts. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — Verbs that contain the copula and attribute 
are sometimes called attributive verbs, because the attribute is 
included in them. 

Remark 2. — The verb to be is sometimes an attributive 
verb ; it then denotes existence, and is commonly preceded by 
there^ and followed by its subject ; e. g., " There are horses." 
^* Horses exist." 

Remark 3. — Besides the verb to be, there are several others 
which do not complete the predicate, but take after them some 
word denoting a property of the subject; e. g., " Daguerrians 
arc becoming numerous." " Emma is called handsome." 

Note. — These verbs are somethnes called copulative verbs. They are 
8uch as become^ seem, appear, and the passive forms of deem, siyle^ name, 
call, consider, &c. 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 187 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the Grammatical and Logical Predicate in the following exer- 
cises. 

Model. — "TTilliam "v\Tites long letters." 

" Writes^^ is the Grammatical Predicate. The Grammatical Predicate 
is either a verb alone, or the copula with a noun or adjective. In tliis 
proposition it is a verb alone. 

" Writes hng letters'^ is the Logical Predicate. The Logical Predicate 
consists of the Grammatical with its various modifications. In this propo- 
sition the grammatical predicate ^''writes'''' is modified by the noun letters^ 
and the noun letters by the adjective long. 

Distrust often excites deceitfulness in children. You cannot 
improve without labor and attention. Your brother Henry 
will be rewarded for his patience and industry. Obstinacy and 
folly are twin sisters. William has perseverance enough to 
succeed. Have vou considered the evils of civil war? Those 
men will always prove successful in their undertakings. Tliis 
generation possesses greater advantages than the preceding. 
Robert drove the horses carelessly. Great plans w^ere co:-- 
ceived by the multitude. A treaty was concluded between tiio 
contending parties. Henry will never be forsaken by his 
friends under any emergency. Your residence is beautiiully 
situated. Mechanics are beneficial to society. The criminal 
implored the mercy of the court. An ambitious spirit is nc^t 
commendable at all times. 

That witness is unacquainted with facts in the case. Any 
man w^ith prudence and economy may thrive. The tongue of 
slander often blasts the fairest reputation. The insurance 
company is responsible for the damages caused by the late fire. 
Preston, the distinguished orator of the South, will visit Italy 
m the spring. John has accepted the invitation to attend the 



188 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

picnic. The house is old and worthless. Uncle has lost the 
horse he prized so much. Algebra is too difficult a study for 
so small a boy. This region of country seems to be well tim- 
bered. Prudence is tbe best security against want. 

The idler is preparing the way for sorrow. Father will 
come if he can. Mary will attend the concert this evening. 
Are you able to resist the poison of flattery ? James was guiltj 
of rude and improper behavior. A trifle will put him in a 
passion. Kobert is too weak to bear much fatigue. Richelieu 
was the most skilful statesman of his time. Tlie aflairs of 
others do not concern me. Your friends and mine are of the 
same opinion. Time is too precious to be spent in trifles. 
Lend me the first volume of Gibbon's Rome. Insert a com- 
pound personal pronoun. Martha's brother was punished by 
her teacher. Washington defeated the British at Yorktown. 
The Russians have destroyed the Turkish fleet. Never enter 
the school room in a noisy manner. Captain Cook was killed 
by the savages. Pride and interest are often united. Honor 
and fame are the offspring of labor. 

§ 287. The Predicate^ like the Subject^ is 
either Simple or Compound. 

§ 288. A Simple Predicate is one that con- 
tains a single finite verb ; e. g.^ " John saiv Robert 
with his mother^ 

§ 289. A Compound Predicate consists of two 
or more simple predicates belonging to the same 
subject; e. g.^ ^^John saw Robert with his mother^ 
and sjooke to himr 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 189 



^ EXERCISES. 

Point out the Predicate in the following propositions; — ^tell whether 
it is Simple or Compound. 

Model. — 'IlGnry wishes to enter college next fall." 

The Predicate is Simple, because it consists of a finite verb. 

" Henry wishes to enter college next fall, and graduate in the course o* 
two years." 

The Predicate is Compound, because it consists of two Simple Predi- 
cates belonging to the same subject. 

Man is wicked by nature and corrupt by practice. William 
hns come in compliance with your request, and will now at- 
tend to wliat you desired. Can you read well and write 
legibly ? Henry gave an account of the whole difficulty. 
We will ride to the citv, or w^alk to the villao-e. Father will 
commend and reward you for your diligence. John or Thom- 
as was the author of the mischief. Harry can run, hop, skip, 
F.n 1 jump. Robert or James turned over the inkstand on the 
dosk. Jesse caught and saddled the pony. I wall write the 
letter and send it without delay. You must do nothing to 
sully your reputation. The goods will be sold much below the 
regular price. Jane was recommended to walk a mile every 
morning. We were disappointed and chagrined at his con- 
duct. 

Horses are very useful animals. Rufus w^as one of the com- 
pany. Thomas directed the letter and gave it to the clerk. 
The man saw Tliomas in the garden at work. Henry loves 
liis sister and takes m-eat care of her. Robert and his father 
l^ave come to visit their friends. My friend Thomas resides in 
New Haven. Men of prudence and discretion act after mature 
deliberation. The children all desire to go to the museum 
tJiis evening. Edwin has a strong desire to learn, and will 



190 SYNTAX. — MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

succeed. We have reflected on tlie subject, and are prepared 
to give you a distinct answer. Father wishes Mary to improve, 
Charles always finds time to prepare his recitation. I honor 
you for your frankness and candor. Has your father sold his 
crop ? 

The Spartan youths were accustomed to go barefoot. Ma- 
tilda plays and sings well. Can Thomas read ? Avarice is a 
contemptible and sordid vice. Trust in God implies a belief in 
him. The devils believe and tremble. Will you attend to the 
Dusiness yourself? Hope, the balm of life, was our greatest 
comforter. You may always look for a calm after a storm. 
The merchant sold out his stock and purchased again. James 
will rectify the error and correct any mistakes. Eobert was 
laughed at for the folly of his conduct. The slanderer is 
beneath contempt. His attempt to rescue his friend was fatal 
to himself. He desired to have an interview with the minister. 
No one ought unnecessarily to wound the feelings of his friend 
or insult his religious prepossessions. 



MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

§ 290. The Grammatical Predicate may be 
modified or limited in different ways : 

1. By a Noun or Pronoun in the same case as the Subject; 
e.g., "He was called JohnP "She moves a goddessr "It 
is heP 

2. By a Noun or Pronoun in the objective case ; e. g., 
"Henry struck JamesT "I saw tliemV 

3. By an Adjective relating to the subject ; e. g., " Wasb 
ington was wise,^'* " The general was brave,^^ 



SYNTAX. — OBSERVATIONS. — EXERCISES. 191 

4. By an Adjunct ; e. g., " Henry wrote to ThomasP " The 
man cvawafrom the cityT 

5. By an Adverb; e. g., "Jolin wnic^^ rapidly P "William 
>peaks carelessly." 

6. By an Infinitive ; e. g., "Robert wishes to excelP " Ed- 
ward called to see James." 

7. By a Dependent Clause ; e. g., "We hope that he is a 
good many " Father wishes you to improved 

OBSERYATIONS. 

Remark 1. — An infinitive or participle may be modified like the verb 
of the predicate. 

Remark 2. — A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, may bo 
modified in both its subject and predicate as other propositions. 

Remark 3. — All other words used to modify the predicate, may them- 
selves be modified in any orthe ways mentioned under the article, " Modi" 
fication of Modifying Words.'''' 

Remark 4. — Several modifications are sometimes connected with the 
same predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following propositions; — show how the Predicate ia 
modified. 

Model. — " Demosthenes was an orator." 

" Demosthenes was an orator''' is a Proposition, because it contains a 
Subject and Predicate. 

" Demosthenes'''' is the Subject, and ^^was an orator''' the Predicate. The 
ailributc ^^ orator^' is modified by the definitive an, — "ari orator^ 

'' They marched into the city." 

" TJicy marched into the ciiy^^ is a Proposition, because it contains a Sub- 
ject and Predicate. 



192 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

^^Tliey^^ is the Subject, and ^^ marched'''' the Predicate. In this proposi- 
tion the predicate is modified bj the adjunct ^^into the cityy " City^' is 
modified by the definitive the^ — ^'■the city.'''' 

"John writes rapidly." 

" John ivriies rapidly^^ is a Proposition, because it contains a Subject 
and Predicate. 

*' JohrC is the Subject, and " writes''' the Predicate. *' Wriies rapidly^^ 
is the Modified Predicate. Here ^'"writes''' is modified by rapidly. 

Send James to liis mother. Mary's kitten is very playful. 
Bonaparte was born in Corsica. Father wishes that you would 
call at the store in the mornino;. The teacher savs that Rob- 
ert improves rapidly. Henry has determined to go to Boston. 
Do you think that he is a good man ? The grass grows very 
rapidly since the rain. Mother says that labor conquers all 
things. Iceland is a very cold country. Rufus became a 
great fevorite among the boys. Some men are envious of 
other people. William and Thomas said that the books were 
theirs. Richard has gone to Philadelphia to procure a situa- 
tion. The pupils have been attentive to the lesson. 

Edward's father depends on him for a support. The gentle- 
man was unable to ascertain how his monev had been re- 
covered. To treat our enemies kindly is the surest way to 
make them our friends. To know God and serve him, should 
be the great object of our existence. The young ladies write 
very neatly. His name shall be called John. James writes 
with much accuracy. Paul, the apostle, wrote many epistles. 
John is very fond of his studies. The musician plays well on 
the flute. The man lias gone into the house. Doctor Garland 
has been elected president of the Southern University. The 
company traveled very pleasantly. The gun went off un- 
expectedly. 

Wildridge found the horse in the field by the house. The 
farmer is about to go to market. The speaker aimed to 



SYNTAX. — CLASSIFICATION. 193 

be pathetic. John and Henry have gone to school. The son 
and daughter of the emigrant were drowned crossing the 
river. Tha elephant's sagacity amused the children. They 
were commanded to return to their own country. Washington 
served his country in the army before the Revolution. Did 
William and Samuel arrive in time to witness the perform- 
ance ? The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles broad. 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of the Gram- 
matical Predicate modified by a Noun or Pronoun in the same 
case as the Subject. Five, by a Noun or Pronoun in the 
objective case. Five, by an Adjective relating to the subject. 
Five, by an Adjunct. Five, by an Adverb. Five, by an 
Infinitive. Five, by a Dependent clause. 



STPvUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

S 291. A Sentence is an assemblage of words 
SO cirraiiged as to constitute a distinct proposition ; 
e. g., " Horses run /' " Thomas ivrltes exercises. 



j> 



CLASSIFICATION. 

§ 292. Sentences are of four kinds : — Declara- 
ilvCj Interrogative^ Exclamatory^ and Imperative. 

8 293. A Declarative Sentence is one in which anv thinof 
is simply affirmed, or denied of the subject; c. g., ^^ Time 
Jlies ;" " Alexander will not study P 



194 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

§ 294. An Interrogative Sentence is one in which a ques- 
tion is asked ; e. g., " Do the winds blow .^" " Who hath be- 
lieved our report .^" 

§ 295. An Exclamatory Sentence is one in which some- 
thing surprising is expressed, or in which full utterance is given 
to some sudden or strong emotion ; e. g., " There stands the 
bravest of the brave P"* " May my tongue cleave to the roof of 
my mouth /" 

§ 296. An Imperative Sentence is one in which a command 
is expressed ; e. g., *' Blow winds^ blow ;" " Buy the truth and 
sell it notP 

EXEECISES. 

Point out the different kind of Sentences in the following exercises. 

The stores of his mind were inexhaustible. AVhat arith- 
metic is most extensively used in the South ? His language is 
as difficult of disentanglement as the gnarled oak. Farewell! 
may happiness attend your path ! Be quick, and bring me 
back word what he says. Which enjoy themselves best, idlers 
or industrious pupils ? O, haste my father's heart to cheer I 
James studies well and is a very attentive pupil. History is a 
record of facts, as may be easily ascertained on examination. 
Stands the South true to her principles, or is she recreant? 
Did James go with Thomas? Indeed I it is Matilda herself! 
To know God and serve him is the great end of our being. 
The united forces of the Americans and French besieo^ed York- 
town, and took Cornwallis and the English army prisoners. 

Hail ! holy light ! offspring of heaven's first-born ! Jane, 
where have you laid the scissors? Order John to saddle Turk, 
Oh ! how our hearts were beating ! What is chancellor Ma- 



SYNTAX. —EXERCISES. 195 

don's opinion on this point? Fabius, tlie Roman general, had 
so much caution in avoiding a battle with Hannibal, that he 
was most unjustly accused of cowardice. How fiercely the 
wind blows this morning ! The body is mortal ; the soul im- 
mortal. Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready 
man; and writing, an exact man. A proper love for our 
country and the human race is consistent. Who wrote my 
name on the blackboard ? Write the following examples on 
vour slates. 

Perform your duty faithfully, for this will procure you the 
blessings of Heaven. The want of some pursuit to occupy our 
time is often productive of evil. Do you expect to spend your 
winter in Charleston ? Study to adapt yourself to the circum- 
stances with w^hich you are sdftounded. Oh ! that men should 
put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains ! 
What ! will these hands never be clean ? Religion, rightly 
understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending 
it. The science of criticism may be considered as a middle 
link, connecting the different parts of education into a regular 
chain. Every person's safety requires that he should submit 
to be governed ; for if one man may do harm w ithout suftering 
punishment, every man has the same right, and no person can 
be safe. 

§ 297. A Sentence may consist either of one 
proposition, or of two or more propositions connected 
together; e. g., ''James is industrious T '-^ Thomas 
tvill assist you^ ivhen he comes home'' 

§ 298. A sentence consisting of but one propo- 
sition is called a Simple Sentence; e.g., "Cicero 
delivered four orations against Catiline^ 



196 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

§ 299. A sentence consisting of two or more 
propositions is called a Compound Sentence, and 
the propositions, of which it is composed, its mem" 
hers or clauses ; e. g., "Age increases the desire of 
living^ though it lessens the enjoyments of life!' 

EXERCISES, 

Tell whether the sentences in the following exercises are Simple or 
Compound, and why. 

" Tlie lamp hums dimly,^^ is a Simple Sentence, because it consists of 
but one proposition. 

*' War makes rogues^ and peace haifgs ihem^^^ is a Compound Sentence, 
because it consists of more propositions than one. 

Thomas has perseverance and ability enough to succeed in 
anything. You must do it, because it is my wish. Foster 
will come if he can spare the time. Robert's attention to 
business and blameless conduct have already secured the regard 
of his associates. If time is money, wasting it must be prodi- 
gality. I shall neither attempt to palliate nor deny the charge. 
I will walk, but you may ride. We must resist to arms, or our 
liberties will be lost. James, bring me your book, and I will 
assist you in learning the lesson. While the bridegroom tar- 
ried, they all slumbered and slept. I said it to George, and I 
"will repeat it to you. The man begged us to assist him. If 
he will repent, he may yet be pardoned. We listened to the 
music of the running waters, and the sweet melody of the 
birds. The science of mathematics performs more than it 
promises. 

I must go if you command me. Do you think that you can 
obtain your mother's consent to visit us in the spring ? You 



SYNTAX. — CLAUSES. 19*5 

/nust not be too eager in the pursuit of riches, for they are at- 
tended ^vith a thousand cares, from which at present you are 
exempt. Frank loves his brother John, because he is kind to 
him. Experience is a surer guide than imagination. As a 
bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that wandcreth 
from his place. Moses built the tabernacle as he was com- 
manded. If the blessings of our political and social condition 
have not been too highly estimated, we cannot well overrate 
the responsibilities they impose on us. 

We shall be rewarded for our diligence and perseverance. 
The love of praise should be properly kept under. If Jane is 
indolent, she must be punished. Mary feared the displeasure 
of God more than the frowns of her companions. Example is 
more convincing than precept. Every day brought us intelli- 
gence of some new disaster. Revelation teaches us how we 
may obtain happiness here and hereafter. AVe sometimes for- 
get our faults, when we are not reminded of them. Love not 
sleep, lest thou come to poverty. Indifference to the ordinary 
pursuits of life is indicative of a defective judgment. You could 
not convince him by any argument. Straws swim on the sur- 
face, but pearls lie at the bottom. 



INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT 

CLAUSES. 

§ 300. The members of a compound sentence 
are either Independent or Dependent. 

Remark. — The clauses of a compound sentence are sometimes called 
Coordinate and Subordinate. 

§ 301. An Independent Clause is one that 



198 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

makes sense by itself; e. g.^ '^Alfred and William 
left town'' 

§ 302. A Dependent Clause is one that makes 
complete sense only in connection with another ; 
e. g.j " Alfred and William left town^ when the sun 
setr 

Explanation. — "Alfred and William left town, when the 
sun set." In this sentence, " When the sun sef^ is a dependent 
clause, because it does not make a complete sense unless joined 
with the other clause. 

§ 303. The member of a compound sentence, 
on which the other members depend, is called the 
Leading Clause; its subject, the Leading Subject; 
and its verb, the Leading Verb. 

Remark. — The Subordinate Clause is often placed first; 
e. g., " When he comes^ I will go." " If mother is willing, you 
may stay." 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the Independent and Dependent Clauses in the following 
exercises ; — tell the Leading Subject, and the Leading Verbs. 

Model. — "If mother is willing, you may stay." 

" You may stay^^^ is the Independent or Leading Clause ; and " Ij 
mother is willing^^^ the Dependent or Subordinate. *' Fow" is the Leading 
Subject, and ^^may stay," the Leading Verb. 

We love him, because ho first loved us. I have not heard 
whether he intends to remain. Rufus is not in the garden, but 
he is at school. The lion killed his keeper, because he took 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 19& 

away his food. AVilliain and Tliomas read, but they cannot 
write. Ignorance moves our pity, and that modifies our aver- 
sion. If we have not always time to read, we have time to 
reflect. I will soon come to you, if I go away. You must not 
go in the yard to play, until you have learned your lesson for 
Mondav. The academy is laro-e but not well situated. The 
poor is hated even of his owm neighbor, but the rich hath many 
friends. The eyes of the Lord are in every place, beholdirig 
the evil and the good. AYe know that we live, but vegetable.-^ 
do not. This wall is hio-h, but that tree is hii^-her. If tlio 
parcel is too heavy, let them carry it by turns. We act 
foolishly, if we waste our time. Eighteousness exalteth a 
nation, but sin is a reproach to any people. Pride goeth 
before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a downfall. 

The slothful man sayeth, "There is a lion in the way." 
Henry will be ruined, unless he change his course. When 
the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. I cannot 
believe that Frank is dishonest. Marv did not observe Sarah, 
till she had spoken. The wicked flee when no man pursues. 
If your friend travels there, you should do so too. Do you 
kno^y whether Henry has gone ? If your sister comes, by all 
means ask her to wait for me. Iron sinks in water, but floats 
in quicksilver. Bonaparte said that England was a nation of 
shopkeepers. Men are animals, but all animals are not men, 
Henry is afraid to ask, for he has been idle all the week. 
James does not write as well as he reads. Though Cousin 
Thomas is convalescent, he is afraid to venture out. 

A man who has no sense of religion cannot be trusted. Life 
is short at best, and it should be employed in doing good to all 
men. I was writing to Uncle William inviting him to spend 
the summer w^ith us, when Henry came in from school. Com. 
mon reports, if ridiculous rather than dangerous, are best con* 



200 SYNTAX. — CONNECTION OF CLAUSES. 

futed by neglect. Chanty does not consist in speculative ideas 
alone, but in active benevolence. An idle man is a mere blank 
in creation. Father favored the undertaking, because the 
manager resembled his friend. True benevolence expands our 
love to God and man. By proper reflection we may be taught 
to correct what is erroneous and defective. Vivacity is often 
promoted by presenting a sensible object to the mind, instead 
of an intelligent one. His manners were not marked by poli- 
tesse, but by an offensive hauteur. 



CONNECTION OF CLAUSES. 

§ 304. The members of a compound sentence 
may be connected by relatives, conjunctions, or 
adverbs ; e. g., * 

Relatives, — " That which cannot be cured must 
be endured." 

Conjunctions. — "The miser lives poor, that he 
may die rich." 

Adverb. — '^' We shall go, when the cars go.' 



)> 



Explanation. — In the first sentence, the relative which not 
only stands as the subject of ^^ cannot be cured^'' but also con- 
nects its clause with the leading clause ; that connects the 
clauses in the second example, and when in the third. 

Note. — When a clause connected by that can be regarded either as 
the subject or object of the verb in the leading clause, in construction 
it is equivalent to a noun, and the whole may be regarded as a sim- 
ple sentence, though in form it is really compound. In the sentence 
" TJiat man should steal is base,^^ there are two clauses connected by iJiatj 
constituting a compound sentence, and yet the dependent clause '* that 



SYNTAX. — OBSERVATIONS. — EXERCISES. 201 

man should steal''' is really the subject of i^, and equivalent to a noui^ , 
thus viewed the whole may be regarded as a simple sentence. So also 
when the dependent clause is the object of the leading verb ; e. g., 
^^ I said thai ye are gods ;'' and so also when either the subject or predicate 
is modified by a relative clause. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Kemark 1. — The connecting word is sometimes omitted; 
e. g., *' This is the book I lost ; I suppose you found it," for, 
" This is the book which I lost ; I suppose that you found it." 

Remark 2. — An infinitive with its subject is used without a 
connecting word ; e. g., " I believe John to he an honest bov " 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the connecting words in the following exercises ; — tell wnat 
they connect. 

Model. — " Straws swim on the surface, but pearls lie at the bottom." 
In this sentence *' huf'' is the connective ; it is used to connect the 
clauses " Straws swim on the surface,'''' and " Pearls lie at the hottomy 

The man who finds not satisfaction in himself) seeks for it in vain 
elsewhere." 

In this sentence *' loho'''' is the connective ; it stands as the subject of 
the relative clause, " Who finds not satisfaction in himself'' and unites it 
with the noun ^^^ man^ 

** Robert will let you know, when he consults with his brother." 
In this sentence " when'^ is the connective ; it is used to unite the propo- 
sitions ^^ Robert will let you know,'''' and *' He consults with his hrothery 

Charles is a young man much respected by all who kno^ 
him, for his good conduct and integrity. The soldier fled 
when danger appeared. The man we heard at the concert the 

9* 



202 SYNTAX. — EXEKCISES. 

otlier evening, is the best musician that we ever heard. The 
man must travel in disguise, or he will be detected. If he is 
honest and industrious, we will give him steady employment 
for the year or longer, if we can agree. The lightning flashed 
and thunder pealed as if the world was about to come to an 
end, or some other calamity was to happen. Preston will not 
speak to James, because he offended him without a cause 
Thomas will not approach George on that topic, as he knows 
that he does not like to converse about it. Eufus was sick in 
Elizabeth City, when we heard from him. Why do you ask 
that question ? You know that I was not in the house when 
the difficulty took place. 

Unhesitatingly, I give it as my opinion that it is better 
to suffer imposition than not to assist the needy. If you have 
committed a fault, sincerely repent of it I have no idea that 
the report is true, but when Robert comes we shall learn the 
particulars. James remarked that he could not remain long 
on this visit, but he would come again next fall, if nothing 
prevented, and spend a month with us. When the sun shone 
out, I consented to remain. I think that Mary would have 
gone with us, if she had been invited. I met Robert yesterday 
as he was returning from Columbus. The company will fine 
him, unless he can offer a good excuse. Did you see the 
meteor when it fell ? The lecture was not as interesting as I 
anticipated. When you visit Greensboro^ I will return with 
you. The man who is prudent will endeavor to avoid danger. 
Robert had started when we reached there. 

Henry understands what is necessary to be done, and I have 
no doubt, will attend to it. When James and William return, 
we will finish writinor the exercises. The weather was fine and 
the roads were excellent, but we were unfortunate in the 
selection of our companions. It is said that beauty attracts 



SYNTAX. — ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 20?^ 

admiration, as honor applause. If we aim at nothing, we sliall 
most certainly achieve nothing. Time is ever advancing, but 
never leaves behind the traces of its iiio'ht. Books that save 
the trouble of thinkin<y are in o-reat demand. When I was a 
child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man, I put 
away childish things. Could we have foreseen this difficulty, 
we miijht have avoided it. The author dreads the critic more 
than the criminal the judge. It is morally certain that we can 
accomplish nothing without effort. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five Declarative Sentences. Five, Interrogative. 
Five, Exclamatory. Five, Imperative. Write five Simple 
Sentences. Five, Compound Sentences. Write five sentences 
containing a clause connected by a Relative Clause. Five, 
containing a clause connected by an Adverb. Five, containing 
a clause connected by a Conjunction. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

§ 305. An Abridged Proposition is one that 
lias its predicate so changed as to destroy the 
affirmation; the finite verb becomes a participle, 
an infinitive, or is dropped. 

Remark. — In Abridged Propositions the connective is 
usually omitted ; e. g., " When the sun approaches, the snow 
melts away ;" abridged, " The sun approaching^ the snow melts 
away." 



204 SYNTAX. — OBSERVATIONS. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — ^When the subjects denote different objects, the 
subject of the subordinate clause may be used independently in 
the nominative case ; e. g., " When James returned, we finished 
the lesson ;" abridged, " James having returned, we finished 
the lesson." 

Remark 2. — When the subjects denote the same object, the 
subject of the subordinate clause may be omitted-; e. g., 
"When /saw their distress, / went to their relief;" abridged, 
" Seeing their distress, I went to their relief." 

Remark 3. — When the attribute in the dependent clause^ 

consists of a noun or pronoun in the nominative case after the 

verb as a copula, it remains in the same case in the abridged 

form; e. g., "That he is a judge, is of no consequence;" 

abridged, ^' His being a judge, is of no consequence." " I was 

not aware that he was a judge ;" abridged, " I was not aware 

of his being a judged 

Note.— -The difference between these two modes of expression is 
this : In the full form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is 
affirmed ; in the abridged, it is assumed. 

Remark 4. — ^When the dependent clause is the object of the 
verb in the leading clause, it may often be changed for an in- 
finitive with a subject ; e. g., " I know that he is a scholar ;^ 
abridged, " I know him to be a scholar,''^ 

Remark 5. — When both subjects are the same, that of the 
subordinate clause is omitted before the infinitive ; e. g., " He 
wished that he might go ;" abridged, " He wished to go^ 
" It is base that one should steal ;" abridged, " It is base to 
steair 

Remark 6. — When the subject of the dependent clause is 
connected by what^ which^ whom, whose, when, how, and the 



SYNTAX.— EXEUCISK3. 265 

lite, and relatins to somctliiiis vet future, is tlie samo as tliat 
of the independent one, it is sometimes abridged by retaining 
the connecting word and omitting the subject before the infini- 
tive ; e. g., " I know not what I shall do ;" abridged, " I know 
not what to doT " lie knows where he will go ;" abridged, 
" He knows where to goP 

Note. — In this way are to bo explained such phrases as "how to 
sing;" — "how can I sing?" or, "how should I sing?" 

Remark V. — A dependent clause may often be abridged by 
substituting an equivalent qualifying word, or an adjunct; e. g., 
" The man who is honest will be respected ;" " The honest man 
will be respected." — " When the sun arose, Columbus sailed 
from Palos;" ''At sunrise, Columbus sailed from Palos." — 
" A man of wisdom will be esteemed ;" " A loise onan will be 
esteemed." 



EXERCISES. 

Abridge the Propositions in the following exercises as exemplified in 
the foregoing remarks. 

That he is a young man is no crime. Father directed that 
the horse should be saddled, and that no time should be lost 
in endeavoring to reach the city by one o'clock. When the 
signal was given by the teacher the class went to their seats. 
When James heard of his brother's illness, he went to visit 
him immediately. When the sun shines, the ice melts. That 
one should think of livinor under such a train of circumstances 
was out of the question. AVhen the war w^as ended, and peace 
was proclaimed by the president, the army was disbanded. 
When the sun set, we were directed to march into the fortifica- 
tion, and await further orders. The pupil w^ho is industrious 



206 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES, 

is certain to obtain the love and esteem of his teacher. We 
saw the capitol as it was burning. I stood on the wharf and 
saw the fleet which was anchored in the bay. 

When the boys have finished the lesson, we will divert our- 
selves in the yard with our tops. I have broken my slate and 
know not what I shall do, unless you will lend me yours. The 
fact that he is a hero will avail him nothing in the present 
emergency. When our work is finished we will study. Wil- 
liam knew that the soldier was an officer by his dress. I was 
nor aware until a short time since that he was a candidate for 
the office of probate judge. Well, I know what I shall do to 
defeat his purpose. When I saw the poor man's distress, I 
could scarcely refrain from tears. Henry says he knows where 
he will go for the carpenter to finish the work. When the sun 
rose, w^e made preparations for leaving for home. William 
knows how he should act to please his friends, as well as any 
one can tell him. I am sure that it was he. You know that 
he was a professor. 

George was not aware that Thomas was interested for him. 
I knew that he was a good mechanic. That Robert should 
defend his claim to the land is proper. That one should steal 
is base. A man who is prudent will endeavor to avoid danger. 
James knows what he should read. When the Indians saw 
the eclipse they were greatly frightened. That he is tutor will 
give satisfaction to all interested in the prosperity of the school. 
That William should return to Montgomery is prudent. I was 
not aware that he was a lawyer. When they reached town 
they bartered their produce for powder and lead. At the close 
of the term many will be at a loss what to do. I was not 
aware that he was dishonest. 



SYNTAX, — ANALYSIS.— GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 201[ 



ANALYSIS. 

§ 306. The Analysis of a sentence consists in 
resolving it into its elements, and pointing out the 
offices and relations of each. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

§ 307. The following are the general rules for 
the analysis of sentences : 

1. Determine whether the sentence is declarative^ inter 
rogative^ imperative^ or exclamatory, 

2. If inverted, arrange the sentence in its natural order. 

3. Supply ellipses when necessary. 

4. State whether the sentence is simple or compound. 

5. If simple, name the logical subject and predicate. 

6. Name the grammatical subject and predicate. 

T. Tell by what modifying words, or adjuncts, they are 
modified. 

8. State by what modifying words, or adjuncts, each modi- 
fying word is modified. 

^. If the sentence is compound, mention its members and 
clauses. 

10. State whether they arc independent or dependent. 

11. Show how the members are connected. 

12. Analyze each member as a simple sentence by pointing 
out its subject, predicate, &c., <kc. 



208 SYNTAX. — MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

MODELS FOE ANALYSIS. 

1. " Henry reads." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition ; it ia 
declarative, because it expresses a declaration. 

" Henry'^ is the subject, because it is that of which the proposition 
speaks. 

''''Reads'^ is the predicate, because it expresses what is aflSrmed of the 
imbject " Henry y 

In this sentence the grammatical subject and predicate are the same as 
the logical, because they are not modified by any other words. 

2. " Horses are animals." 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition ; it is 
declarative, because it expresses a declaration. 

^'■Horses''' is the subject, because it is that of which the proposition 
speaks. 

^^ Are animals''' is the predicate, because it expresses wliat is affirmed 
of the subject ^^liorsesy ^^ Is'^ is the verb or copula, and ^^ horses''' 
the attribute. 

In this sentence the grammatical subject and predicate are the same 
as the logical, because they are not modified by any other word. 

3. " Snow is w4iite " 

It is a sunple sentence, because it contains but one proposition. It 
IS declarative, because it expresses a declaration. 

*' Snow^^ is the subject, because it is that of which the proposition 
speaks. 

"76" wJiite'^ is the predicate, because it expresses what is affirmed ot 
the subject ^^ snow,''^ '*/6"" is the verb or copula, and ^^white'^ the at- 
tribute. 

In this sentence the grammatical subject and predicate are the same as 
the logical, because they are not modified by any other word. 

4. " Good boys and girls read attentively." 

This is a simple declarative sentence, subject compound. 
The logical subject is " Good hoys and girW^ 



SYNTAX. — MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 20& 

The logical predicate, " read aitentivelyy 

The grammatical subject is " hoijs and gii'ls,^^ compound, and connected 
Dj ** a?2(:f," both modified by the descriptive " goody 

The grammatical predicate is '■'' read^'' modified by the adverb "a/- 
tejitively,^^ expressing the manner. 

5. " The religion of the Koran is a system of deception." 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The logical subject is " Tlie religion of the Koran,''^ 

The logical predicate is '* is a system of deception.^'* 

The grammatical subject is " Systemy It is limited by the definitive 
"/Ae," and the adjunct "0/ the Korany 

The grammatical predicate is ''^ is system f ^^is''' is the verb or copula, 
and '"' sysiem^^ the attribute. It is limited by the definitive "a," anil 
the adjunct " of decepiiony 

6. " The diligent pupil does what is right from principle." 

This is a compound sentence, declarative, containing one leading, and 
one dependent clause connected by which. 

The independent clause is " The diligent pupil does {the thing) from 
principUy 

The dependent clause is " what is righty 

In the first, or leading clause — 

The logical subject is " The diligent pupiV 

The logical predicate, " does (the thing) from principley 

The grammatical subject is "pupiiy It is modified by the definitive 
^^ihe,^^ and the descriptive ^^ goody 

The grammatical predicate is " doesy It is modified by its object, 
thing, and the adjunct, ^^from principle j^^ thing is modified by the rela- 
tive clause. 

In the second, or dependent clause — 

The logical subject is " whaty It -also connects the clause with the 
indefinite antecedent, thing understood, and restricts it. 

The logical predicate is "is right ;^^ ^^is''^ is the verb or copula, and 
* righf^ the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logicaL 



210 SYNTAX. — MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

Y. *• There is nothing which boys prize and esteem so much 
as amusement." 

This is a compound sentence, declarative, consisting of one independent 
clause, and two dependent clauses. 

The independent clause is " There is nothing.^'' 

The first dependent clause is ^^luhich hoys prize and esteem so mucli^' 
coimected to the preceding by "i^/iic/z." 

The second dependent clause, connected bj '* a^" to the preceding, as 
its leading member, is ^Hhey prize and esteem^'''' amusment. 

In the first, or independent proposition — 

The logical subject is " nothing.'''' 

The logical predicate is ^Hsy 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical 
" There!'' is an introductory expletive, used in such sentences where the 
subject follows the verb. 

In the second proposition, dependent on the first — 

The logical subject is '' hoys^ 

The logical predicate is ''^ prize and esteem which so muchy 

The grammatical subject is *' boys.^^ 

The grammatical predicate is ^^ prize''' and " esteem^'''' compound, con- 
nected by ^^ and,^^ and modified by their object ^^which^'''' which also con- 
nects its clause with its antecedent ^^noihing,^^ for the purpose of restrict- 
ing it, by the adverbial phrase ^^so much.'''' 

In the third proposition, connected with the second by " 05," — 

The logical subject is ''^/ley," understood (for loys.) 

The logical predicate is ^^ prize and esteem amusement!''' 

The grammatical subject is " they^''^ or the same as in the preceding 
clause. 

The grammatical predicate is ^'prize^^ and ^^esteem*^ understood, modi- 
fied by their object *' amusement!'^ 

8. " AVhom seek ye ?" 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one proposition; inter- 
rogative, because it asks a question ; indirect, because it inquires for only 
a part of the corresponding declarative sentence j inverted, because the 
objective element is placed first. 



SYNTAX. — MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 211 

" Fe" is the subject, because it is that of which the proposition speaks. 
'* Seelv^ is the predicate, because it expresses what is affirmed of the 
Bubjjct "7/e." 

The logical subject is "2/^." 

The logical predicate, *' whom 5ee/u" 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is "^eeA;" modified hj its object ^^wliomy 

9. " To pilfer is to steal" 

It is a simple, declarative sentence. 

" To pilfer'^ is the subject, because it is that of which the proposition 
speaks. 

*' Is to steaV is the predicate, becaase it expresses what is affirmed of 
che subject "^0 pilfer. '''' 

The logical subject is " to pilfer^ 

Tlie logical i)redicato is '* is to steaV " J^" is the verb or copula, and 
" to steaV^ the attribute. 

In this sentence the grammatical subject and predicate are the same a? 
the logical. 

10. "The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, 
affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore 
the Omnipotent hand by which it was created." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one independent clause, and 
two dependent clauses. 

The independent clause is, " The minutest plant, or animal, affords a 
ihotcsand wonders, and obliges us to admii^e and adore the Omnipotent 
handJ^ 

The first dependent clause is '^{it is) attentively examined;^'' it is con- 
nected by the subordinate conjunction ^'z/" to the leading verbs ^^ affords*^ 
and ''^ ohligesy 

The second dependent clause is '''' hy which it was created f^ it is con- 
nected by ^''which^^ to ^^hand" to describe it. 

In the independent clause — 

The logical subject is " The minutest plant or animaV 

The logical predicate is " Affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us ia 
admire and adore the Omnipotent handy 



212 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

The grammatical subject is ^^planf and ^^ animal,^^ compound; its 
parts are connected by "or" as alternates, and modified by ''- minutesf^ to 
describe them. 

The grammatical predicate is ''''affords''' and ^^ oUiges,^^ compound; its 
parts are connected by •' a?^d" " Affords^'' is limited by its object " loon- 
ders,^^ modified by the adjectives "a" and ^'' tJiousandy " Ohlige^'^ i 
limited by the infinitive clause ^''us to admire and adore^^'' of which *' us 
is the subject. These infinitives are hmited by the noun ^^ hand,^^ modi- 
fied by the adjectives " the'^ and " Omnipotent^'''' and the relative clause 
"6y which it was created^ The verbs ^''affords'''' and ^^ obliges^^ are modi- 
fied also by the conditional clause ^^if{ii is) attentively examined^ 

In the first dependent clause — 

The logical subject is "z^," referring to ^'' planV or *' animal." 

The logical predicate is " is attentively examined." 

The grammatical subject is " it." 

The grammatical predicate is " is examined.''^ It is modified by the ad- 
verb " attentively." 

In the second dependent clause — 

The logical subject is it, referring to '^ plant" or " animal." 

The logical predicate is ^^was created by luhicJi." 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is ^^was created." It is modified by the ad- 
junct by whichj referring to ^^hand" its antecedent. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze and parse the sentences in the following exercises according 
to the models before given. 

Jolm walks. Virtue triumphs. Eain refreshes. Matilda 
recited. William improves. James has returned. You may 
go. Thomas has written. Do como. Edward will recover. 
America was discovered. Papers are printed. Henry wi' 
have returned. I am reading. Sin revived. They have 
walked. John was writino'. Is Auofusta readinsc ? Horses 
are animals. Fish swim. Kings are rulers. Dogs will jSght. 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 213 

Lions roar. They liad come. Teachers instruct. Elvers llow. 
Edward will have returned. God exists. Julia might have 
written. You were writino-, Mary must have read. Rain 
descends. Labor ceases. Rufus may learn. Works decay. 
Cotton is declining. Pupils parse. Generals command. Sis- 
ter will study. Prints sell. Flowers bloom. Sarah shall re- 
turn. Men have offended. Lucy will have been playing. 
Willis might have gone. Soldiers are camping. Mexico is 
conquered. Thomas can go. 

Man's work decays. Ripe fruit is excellent. The bird sings, 
Tiie sun shines. Good boys are industrious. Dutiful children 
are esteemed. Mild w^eather is pleasant. That man is base 
William has ripe apples. No person came. Julia's needle is 
lost. Some children are interesting. My brother improves 
rapidly. John's horse is lame. Good pupils study diligently. 
Henry himself returned. Webster, the statesman, is dead. 
Silver is white. Brother Thomas has prepared the recitation. 
Augustus was emperor. Those fish are large. The mechanic 
.abored industriously. The Americans conquered the British. 
Four father owns a large plantation. Nero, the Roman em- 
peror, was a most cruel man. Your sister Jane studies dili- 
gently. Deep rivers float heavy rafts. A disobedient son 
grieves his parents. Sin deceives its votaries. John's brother 
is unfortunate. Henry found a dollar. The scholar's duty is 
plain. Joseph must study arithmetic. An industrious boy 
will be esteemed. The committee will visit the school. Good 
children love their parents. 

William has promised to write the letter. I ara delighted 
to see you here. I saw James walking in the garden with his 
mother. To die is the common lot of all mankind. Alfred 
round his sister's fan on the floor. Every man fills his space in 
creation. The city of Mexico is situated in the midst of a 



214 SYNTAX. — EXEKCISES. 

delightful valley. To despair in adversity is the indication of 
a weak mind. Henderson is the name of a small town. James 
will not return from Marion before mornino*. A man of in- 
tegrity is esteemed in every position. The ancestors of the 
English are generally known by the name of Saxons. The 
soldiers marched slowly over the plain. My brother's son 
Bends me the Advocate weekly. The principles of Christianity 
are founded on the Bible. James will assist you most cheer- 
fully. Without the aid of charity, he lived very comfortably 
by his industry. We may expect a calm after a storm. Not- 
withstanding his poverty he was the delight of his acquaint- 
ances. We study grammar for our improvement in language. 
According to my impression Jane is in fault. The progress 
from vice to virtue is gradual. 

A compound sentence contains two or more propositions 
connected together. A conjunction is used to connect words 
or propositions. William performed his task very readily. 
Columbus having accomplished the object of his voyage 
returned to Spain. We saw a man leading his horse slowly 
over the bridge. The dark host of Rothmar stood on the 
banks with their glittering spears. Young gentlemen, you 
have run over the recitation very carelessly. Paradise, the 
garden of Eden, is supposed to have been situated somewhere 
about the head waters of the Euphrates, a river in Asia. The 
pear is on the ground under the tree. The pleasures of the 
understanding are preferable to those of the imagination. Un- 
grammatical expressions offend the ear of the true critic. Bo- 
naparte entered Russia with four hundred thousand men. 
Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. The 
slumbering: seas calmed the hermit's mind. The twinklino- 
stars with their soft lustre adorned night's blue arch. The 
stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lonely head^ 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 215 

The purling streams moisten the eartli's surface. True polite- 
ness has its seat in tlie henrt. We are commonly blind to our 
own failings. Temper the vivacity of youth with a proper 
mixture of serious thought. A plain understanding is often 
joined with great worth. 

Pietv and virtue are becomingc in all stai^es of life. The 
brio-htest talents are sometimes found without virtue or honor. 
Truth and candor possess a powerful charm: they bespeak 
universal favor. After the first departure from sincerity it is 
seldom in our power to stop : one artifice generally leads on to 
another In preparing for another world, we must not neglect 
the duties of this life. A life of pleasure and dissipation is an 
enemy to health, fortune, and character. We sliould endeavor 
to please, rather than to shine and dazzle. Brutus loved 
Caesar much, but he loved Rome more. William's father 
died before he arrived. John and James are happy, because 
they are good. Mary speaks so low, that she cannot be heard. 
My lips shall not speak wickedness, nor my tongue utter deceit. 
If greatness flatters our vanity, it multiplies our dangers. 
Though bad men attempt to turn virtue into ridicule, they 
honor it at the bottom of their hearts. Happiness does not 
grow up of its own accord, but it is the fruit of long cultiva- 
tion, and the acquisition of great labor and care. 

Show mankind that truth has yet a friend. All this passed 
much quicker than I can write it. We obey the laws of 
society, because they are the laws of virtue. The boy who 
studies will improve. Your uncle was the man whom we saw\ 
The annals of our race have been filled up with incidents which 
convey no instruction. Columbus supposed Hispaniola to be 
the ancient Ophir, which had been visited by the ships of 
Solomon. The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. 
Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a 



216 SYNTAX. — EXEHCISES. 

downfall. He was a professed Catliolic, yet lie imprisoned the 
Pope. The book is well written, still it may not please. No 
fascinating throng weep, and melt, and tremble at his eloquence. 
The evil bow before the good ; and the wicked, at the gates of 
the righteous. The sun having set, all nature was silent. 
The spirit, indeed, is willing, but the flesii is weak. Had you 
led the way, he would have followed, I gave more than he, 
and yet I fear I have-not given enough. Go not away, for it 
is wrong ; but return to your brother ; because he desires you 
to do so. 

The man who is faithfully attached to religion may be relied 
on with confidence. The vices which we should especially 
avoid are those that most easily beset us. Even in these times 
there are many persons who, from disinterested motives, are 
solicitous to promote the happiness of others. The young and 
the prosperous should not presume on their advantages. When 
a person has nothing to do, he is often tempted to do wrong 
The business is completed at last, but I intended to do it long 
ago. Knowing him to be my superior, I cheerfully submitted 
If Charles acquire knowledge, good manners, and virtue, he 
will secure esteem. If we possess not the power of self-govern- 
ment, we shall be the prey of every loose inclination that 
chances to arise. We spend our time in contending absurdly 
about the trifles of the day, while we ought to be preparing for 
a higher existence. The patient and the wise, by a proper 
improvement of the disappointments of life, frequently make 
them contribute to their advantafre. 

How little do they know of the true happiness of life, who are 
strangers to that intercourse of good offices and kind aff'ec- 
lions, which, by a pleasing charm, attaches men to one an- 
other, and circulates rational enjoyment from heart to heart. 
If we view ourselves, with all our imperfections and failings in 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES, 217 

a just light, we sliall rntLer be surpiscd at our enjoying so 
many good tilings, tlian discontented, because there are any 
which we want. Mary is more talkative and lively than her 
mother, but not so well iiifonned, nor so uniformly cheerful. 
True cheeifidness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes 
the happiness of all around him. Look around you with at- 
tentive eyes, and weigh characters well, before you connect 
yourself too closely with any who may court your society. 
The beauty of form, a flower easily blasted, often betrays 
its possessor ; for it is short-lived at the best, and trifling at 
any rate in comparison with the higher and more lasting beau- 
ties of the mind. The true honor of man consists not in the 
multitude of riches, or the elevation of rank ; for experience 
shows that any of these may be possessed by the worthless as 
well as by the deserving. 

Thousands whom indolence has sunk into contemptible 
obscurity, might have filled positions of usefulness and honor, 
if idleness had not blighted the effects of their natural powers. 
Sloth is like the slow flowing putrid stream, which stagnates 
in the marsh, breeds venomous animals and poisonous plants, 
and infects with pestilential vapor the whole country round it. 
Whatever fortune may rob us ot\ it cannot take away what is 
most valuable, the peace of a good conscience, and the cheer- 
ing prospect of a happy conclusion to all the trials of life in a 
better world. How many pass away the most valuable season 
of their lives, tossed in the wliirlpool of what cannot be called 
pleasure so much as mere giddiness and folly. Be not over- 
come by tlie injnijjes you meet v»'ith, so as to pursue revenge; 
by the disastevs of life, so as to sink into despair; by the evil 
examples of the world, so as to follow them into sin; hut over- 
come injuries, by forgiveness; disasters, by fortitude; evil 
examples, by firmness of principle. 

10 



218 SYNTAX. —EXERCISES. 

As far as happiness is to be found on earth, we must look 
for it, not in the world or things of the world ; but within our- 
selves, in our temper, and in our heart. The smooth stream, 
the serene atmosphere, and the mild zephyr, are the proper 
emblems of a gentle temper, and a peaceful life ; but among 
the sons of strife, all is loud and tempestuous. 

If we knew how much the pleasures of this life deceive and 
betray their unhappy votaries ; and reflect on the disappoint- 
ments in pursuit, the dissatisfaction in enjoyment, or the un- 
certainty of possession, which everywhere attend them ; we 
should cease to be enamored of these brittle and transient 
joys ; and should wisely fix our hearts on those attainments 
which the world can neither give nor take away, 

"In faith and hope the world will disagree; 
But all mankind's concern is charity." 

"Some in the fields of purest ether play, 
And bask and whiten in the blaze of day." 

"In dread, in danger and alone, 
Famished and chilled, through ways unknown, 
Tangled and steep, he journeyed on, 
Till, at a rock's huge point he turned, 
A watch-fire close before him burned." 

"To be resigned where ills betide. 
Patient when favors are denied, 

And pleased with favors given ; 
Most surely this is wisdom's part, 
This that incense of the heart. 

Whose frao-rancc smells to heaven." 

" Order is heaven's first law ; and this confest, 
Some arc, and must be, greater than the rest; 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 21& 

More rich, more wise, who infers from hence, 
That such are happier, shocks all common sense.'* 

" Needful austerities our wills restrain ; " 
As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm." 

"Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lie in three words, health, peace and competence; 
But health consists with temperance alone ; 
And peace, virtue ! is all thy own." 

" On earth nought precious is obtained, 
But what is painful too ; 
By travail and to travail born, 
Our Sabbaths are but few," 

"Who noble ends, by noble means obtains, 
Or faihng, smiles in exile or in chains, 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed." 

" Our hearts are fasten'd to this world 
By strong and endless ties ; 
But every sorrow cuts a string, 
And urges us to rise." 

" All fame is foreign, but of true desert; 
Plays round the head, but comes not to the heart J 
One self-approving hour whole years outweighs 
Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas ; 
And more true joy Marcellus, exiled, feels, 
Than Cajsar with a senate at his heels." 

" Oft pining cares in rich brocades are drest, 
And diamonds cclitter on an anxious breast." 



220 SYNTAX. — EXEECISEa 

" Teach me to feel anotlier's woe, 
To hide the fault I see ; 
The mercy I to others show, 
That mercy show to me." 

"Far from the madd'ning crowd's ignoble strife, 
Their sober wishes never learn to stray ; 
Along the cool, sequestered vale of life, 

They kept the noiseless tenor of their way." 

"If nothing more than purpose in thy power, 
Thy purpose, firm, is equal to the deed ; 
Who does the best his circumstance allows, 
Does well, acts nobly ; angels could no more.** 

" Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen; 
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
"We first endure, then pity, then embrace." 

" What nothing earthly gives, or can destroy. 
The soul's calm sunshine, and the heartfelt joy, 
Is virtue's prize." 

** When young, life's journey I began. 

The glitt'ring prospect charm'd my eyes, 
I saw, along the extended plain, 
Joy after joy successive rise." 

** The first sure symptom of a mind in health. 
Is rest of heart, and pleasures felt at home." 

" If I am riglit thy grace impart. 
Still in the right to stay; 
If I am wrong, teach my heart 
To find that better way." 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 221 

'^Trne happiness resides in things unseen; 
No smiles of fortune ever blest the bad, 
Nor can her frowns rob innocence of joy," 

" But soon I found 'twas all a dream ; 
And learn'd the fond pursuit to shun, 
Where few can reach the purpos'd aim, 
And thousands daily are undone." 

** 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours, 
And ask them what report they bore to heav'n." 

"All nature is but art unknown to thee; 
All chance, direction w^hich thou canst not see ; 
All discord, harmony not understood ; 
All partial evil, universal good." 

"Ileaven s choice is safer than our own; 
Of ages past inquire. 
What the most formidable fate ; 
*To have our ow^n desire.' " 

"If ceaseless, thus, the fowls of heav'n he feeds, 
If o'er the fields such hicid robes he spreads; 
Will he not care for you, ye faithless, say? 
Is he unwise ? or, are ye less than they ?" 

" The spacious firmament on high, 
With all the blue ethereal sky, 
And spangled heav'ns, a shining frame. 
Their great original proclaim : 
Th' unwearied sun, from day to day. 
Does his Creator's power display 
And publishes to every land, 
The work of an Almighty hand. 



222 SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 

" Soon as the ev'ning shades prevail, 
The moon takes up the wond'rous tale, 
And, nightly, to the listening earth, 
Repeats the story of her birth : 
Whilst all the stars that round her burn, 
And all the planets in their turn, 
Confirm the tidings as they roll, 
And spread the truth from pole to pole. 

*' What though, in solemn silence, all 
Move round the dark terrestrial ball ! 
What, though no real voice nor sound 
Amid their radiant orbs be found ! 
In reason's ear they all rejoice, 
And utter forth a glorious voice. 
For ever singing as thev shine, 
* The hand that made us is Divine.'" 



QUESTIONS. 

What does Syntax treat of? 

Of what does a Proposition consist ? 

What is the Subject ? Predicate ? 

What is remarked respecting the word affirm? 

What is said of the name of the object addressed ? 

What is the position of the subject in interrogative sentences J 

What is said of the Subject? 

What is the Grammatical Subject? 

the Logical ? 

What is said of the Grammatical Subject when it is not 
modified ? 

What further is remarked of the Subject? 



SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 22S 

WTiat is the Simple Subject? 

Wliat is tlie Modified Simple Subject sometimes called* 

What is the Compound Subject ? 

When are words said to modify or limit others ? 

How may the Grammatical Subject be modified ? 

What is the first method ? 

Exemplify it. 

What is the second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? Sixth! 
Seventh ? 

What is said of Modifying or Limiting Words? 

How may a Modifying Noun be modified ? 

an Adjective ? 

an Adverb ? 

What is said of the modification of a Modified Grammatical 
Subject ? 

What is said of the Predicate ? 

Of what does the Grammatical Predicate consist ? 

What are they called ? 

What is the Copula ? 

What is its oflBce ? 

W^hat is the Attribute ? 

How are the Copula and Attribute often found ? 

What is said of words containing the Copula and Attribute 
united ? 

What are such words frequently called ? 

When the verb to be is an attributive verb, what does it 
denote ? 

What is a Copulative Verb ? 

What further is said of the Predicate ? 

What is the Simple Predicate ? 

Of what does the Compound consist ? 

How may the Grammatical Predicate be modified ? 



224 SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 

What is the first named ? 

Exemplify it. 

What is the second ? &c., &c. 

What is said of an Infinitive, or Participle ? 

of all other words modifying the Predicate ? 

What is a Sentence ? 

How are they divided ? 

W^hat is a Declarative Sentence ? 

Interrogative ? Exclamatory ? Imperative ? 

Of what may a Sentence consist ? 

What is a Simple Sentence? 

What is a Compound Sentence ? 

What are the Propositions of which it is composed called ? 

Wliat is said of the members of a Compound Sentence ? 

What is an Independent Clause ? 

W^hat is a Dependent Clause ? 

What do you understand by the Leading Clause ? 

the Leading Subject ? 

What is remarked of the Subordinate Clause ? 

How may the members of a Compound Sentence be con. 
nected ? 

What is said of the Connecting Word? 

What is said of the Infinitive with its Subject? 

What is an Abridged Proposition ? 

What is said of the connecting word in Abridged Propositions? 

When the subjects denote different objects, how may the 
Subo!'dinate Clause be used ? 

What is remarked of the subordinate clause, when the sub- 
jects denote the same object ? 

When the attribute in the dependent clause consists of a 
noun or pronoun in the nominative case after the verb or 
copula, what case docs it take in its abridged form ? 



SYNTAX. - CONvSTRUCTIOX. 225 

Wliat IS the difference between the abridged, and tbe un- 
abridged expression ? 

When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in the 
leading clause, how may it be changed ? 

When both subjects are the same, what is said of that of the 
subordinate clause before an infinitive ? 

When the subject of the dependent clause is connected by 
what^ 2vhom, which^ and the like, relating to something yet 
future, how is it abridged ? 

How may such expressions and phrases as '*how to sing," 
&c., (fee, be explained ? 

How may a dependent clause often be abridged ? 

CONSTRUCTION. 

§ 308. Words are arranged in sentences ac- 
cording to certain rules^ termed the Bules of 
Syntax. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. Every sentence, however simple, must consist of a subject 
and predicate. 

2. Every subject must have a verb, expressed or understood. 

3. Every finite verb must have a subject, expressed or un- 
derstood. 

4. A noun or pronoun in the objective case is used to limit 
the action of a transitive verb, or complete tbe relation of a 
proposition. 

5. A noun or pronoun denoting the relation of ownership, 
source, or kind, takes the form of the possessive. 

10* 



226 SYNTAX. — PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

6. Pronouns must agree with tlieir antecedents in gender, 
number, and person. 

7. Adjectives relate to nouns which they describe or limit. 



PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

§ 309. Syntax is commonly divided into two 
parts : Concord^ and Government. 

§ 310. Concord is the a2;reement of one word 
with another in gender, number and person. 

§ 311. Government is the power of one word 
in determining the mood, tense or case of another. 

Remark. — Formerly the Kules of Syntax were arranged according to 
this division. By this arrangement rules of essential importance to the 
beginner are scattered too much. The best arrangement is as they nat- 
urally arise from the analysis of a simple sentence. Strictly, this may 
not be as logical as the former method, but its practical advantages coun- 
terbalance every other consideration. 

§ 312. Words used to explain or modify other words are 
called Adjuncts. This term embraces all the words of a simple 
sentence, except the subject and predicate. Adjuncts are often 
composed of two or more words ; e. g., " Printing was invented 
in ike fifteenth century T 

§ 313. An Idiom is a form of expression peculiar to a lan- 
guage ; e. g., " Bear with me ;" " Let me do it, as it is my 
wish." 

Remark. — The idioms of a language are not governed according to the 
ordinary rules of syntax. A knowledge of them is best acquired by caro* 
fully observing the phraseology of the best writers and speakers. 



SYNTAX. — RULES OF SYNTAX. 227 

§ 314. An Ellipsis is tlie omission of one or raore words in 
a sentence. Such words are said to be understood. Indeed, 
they are as much a part of the sentence as if they were ex- 
pressed. A full construction requires them ; the meaning 
should be evident without them ; e. g., " That is AVilliam's 
grammar, but this is Rohert''sr 



Remark. — "That is William's grammar, but this is Robertas." In this 
sentence there is an ellipsis of the word grammar^ Caution must be ob- 
served not to omit a word that would obscure tho sense, or weaken the 
force of expression. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I. 

The subject of a proposition must be in the 
nominative case ; e. g., " William writes." 

Rule IL 

A verb must agree with its subject in number 
and person; e. g., ^^ William tvrites'' 

Rule III. 

A noun or pronoun used to limit the action of a 
transitive verb, must be in the objective case ; 
e. g., " William writes letters^ 



)> 



Rule IV. 
A noun or pronoun used to identify another 



228 SYNTAX. — RULES OF SYNTAX. 

noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same 
case; e. g., "Brother William writes letters." 

KULE V. 

A noun or pronoun used to limit the relation of 
ownership, source or kind, is put in the possessive; 
e. g., "Suns rays;" " Alfred' s ^miQ f "Webster s 
Dictionary/' 

EULE VI. 

Adjectives relate to nouns which they describe 
or limit; e. g., "Good boys;" "A book;" "The 
man;" " Either ]idXf "jPzW cents." 

Rule VII. 

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in 
gender, number and person; e. g., "William went 
to his play ;" " The man is happy who lives vir- 
tuously;" " Whoever studies will become learned;" 
" TFy^aif did you do ?" 

Eule VIII. 

Intransitive and passive verbs take the same 
case after them, as before them, when both words 
refer to the same person or thing; e. g., "Hon- 
esty is the best policy;'' "1 took it to be him/' 
" Father was chosen librarian." 



SYNTAX.— RtTLES OF SYNTAX. 22^ 

KULE IX. 

A preposition is a word used to show the rela- 
tion between a noun or pronoun and some preced- 
ing word; e. g.^, "Washington was the father of 
his country;" "Uncle went from Columbus to 
Charleston." 

Rule X. 

A noun or pronoun used to complete the rela- 
tion of a preposition must be in the objective case; 
e.g., "Washington was the father of his country;' 
" Uncle went from Cohunhus to Charleston!' 

EULE XI. 

A noun or pronoun having no grammatical rela- 
tion to the sentence in which it stands, is put in 
the nominative independent; e. g., "Father^ Wil- 
liam has come;" "James having returned^ we 
finished the lesson." 

Rule XII. 

The infinitive mood is used to limit a verb, noun 
or adjective ; e. g., "Strive to improve ;' " He was 
in haste to retire ;" " The boat is ready to leaved 

Rule XIII. 
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and some- 



230 SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 

times other adverbs; e. g., ^^ James studies 
gently^ and is a very attentive pupil." 

EULE XIV. 

Conjunctions connect words and propositions; 
e. g.^ " Susan and Mary know that they have dis- 
obeyed." 

KULE XV. 

Exclamations have no grammatical relation to 
other words ; e. g., '' Oy haste my father's heart 
to cheer!" 



QUESTIONS. 

What is Construction ? 

Name the General Principles. 

How is Syntax divided ? 

What is Concord ? 

What is Government ? 

What is an Adjunct ? 

What does this term embrace ? 

Of what are Adjuncts often composed? 

What is an Idiom ? 

Wliat is said of the government of Idioms ? 

How is a knowledge of them best acquired ? 

What is an Ellipsis ? 

What caution is given in the note ? 



SYNTAX. — RULE I. 231 

RULE I. 

§ 315. The subject of a proposition must be in 
the nominative case ; e. g.^ " William writes." 

Explanation. — The subject of a proposition is that of which 
something is affirmed ; e. g., " William writes." Here " Wil- 
liam'''' is the subject, because it is that of w^hich the action 
" writes''' is affirmed. 

Caution. — This rule is violated by putting the subject of 
the verb in any other case than the nominative. 

Note. — Although every subject of a finite verb must be in 
the nominative case, every nominative case is not the subject 
of a verb. The predicate nominative after a finite verb is put 
in the nominative ; a noun or pronoun in apposition with the 
subject or predicate nominative, is put in the nominative ; a 
noun denoting the person addressed, is put in the nominative ; 
a noun with a participle or infinitive in an abridged proposition 
is put in the nominative ; and also a noun used in a mere ex- 
clamation. 

Kemark 1. — The subject of a verb is generally a noun or pronoun j 
e. g., " William writes;" "/love." 

Remark 2. — Sometimes an infinitive, or part of a sentence, is taken as 
its subject; e. g., " To err is human ;" " Tliat one should steal is base." 

Remark 3. — The subject, in general, precedes the verb ; e. g., " James 
walked into the garden." In tlie following cases, the subject of the verb 
is usually placed after it, or the first auxiUary : 

(1.) "When a question is asked without an interrogative prououn in the 
nominative case ; e. g., " Shall mortals be implacable ?" " Will you go 
with us?" 

(2.) When the verb is in the imperative mood; e. g., ^^ Bring your 
book ;" " Be not frighienedJ^ 



y 



232 SYNTAX. — RULE I. 

(3.) "When an earnest wish or stron,^ desire is expressed ; e. g., ''^ May 
she be happy!" ^'' How lujre we struck with the beauty of the scenery!" 

(4.) When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; e. g., 
^'Ilad we known it, we might have assisted them." '• Was it true that 
James did it?" 

(5.) Wh?n neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb; e. g., 
*' This was his fear, nor ivas his apprehension groundless." 

(G.) When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed be- 
fore the verb, which more naturally come after it; e. g., "Silver and 
gold have 1 none, but such as I have, give /thee." 

(7.) When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical; e. g., 
** After the light infantry marched the grenadiers, then followed the horse.'*^ 

(8.) "When the verbs say, answer, reply, and the like, introduce the parts 
of a dialogue ; e. g., " Son of atfliction, said Omar, who art thou ?" 

(9.) When the adverb there precedes the verb ; e. g., *' In all worldly 
joys, there is a secret wound.^^ 

Remark 4. — A noun and its pronoun cannot be the subject of the 
same verb ; e. g., " The merchant he is honest ;" " The merchant is 

honest." 

»<» 
Remark 5. — In an abridged proposition, the subject may remain un- 
changed, may be changed, or may be wholly dropped. 

(1.) It remains unchanged, when it denotes a different person or thing 
from that of the principal clause, and (though logically it is still the sub- 
ject) it is said to be in the nominative independent, with the participle of 
the predicate ; e. g., " When shame is lost, all virtue is lost ;" " Shame 
being lost, all virtue is lost." 

(2.) It is changed in the possessive case, when the abridged predicate 
as a noun becomes the object of its possession; e. g., ''I was not aware 
that he was going ,-" " I was not aware of his going.'''' 

(3.) It is changed to the objective case when it follows a transitive 
verb, and is followed by the infinitive of the predicate, or (when the in- 
finitive is omitted) by the attribute of the predicate ; e. g., " We sup- 
posed that he was writing;" "We supposed him to be writing;" or 
(omitting the infinitive) " We supposed him writing.''^ 

(4.) It is dropped when it represents the subject or object of the prin- 
cipal clause, or, in general, when it represents the noun which the sub- 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 233 

ordinate clause limits; e. g., "I wish that I might go f' " I wisli to go^ 
*' Reproof which is given in public hardens the heart;" " Reproof givtm in 
public hardens the heart." See *' Abridged Propositions," Page 203. 

Remark 6. — The object of the verb in the active voice becomes its sub- 
ject in the passive ; e. g., " Columbus discovered America ;" " America 
wrs discovered by Columbus." ^ 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

Thomas and me learned the lesson and recited it toi^etlier. 
Are not him and her cousins ? Them that seek wisdom shall 
De wise. Him and me are of the same age. Him I accuse 
has just entered. The Saviour will in no wise cast out whom- 
soever Cometh unto him. Her that studies will improve. 
Whom do you think called to see Jane ? The commander 
feared the enemy might fall on his men, whom he saw were 
off their guard. He is great, but truth is greater than us. 
The mechanic we met yesterday by the church, he is an in- 
dustrious citizen. Matilda has more experience than her. 
Him that is industrious will accumulate property and become 
rich. I should like to know Avhom found my knife. Stimu- 
lated in turn by their approbation, and that of better judges 
than them, she turned to their literature with redoubled 
energy. We had drawn up against peaceable travelers, who 
must have been as glad to escape as us. Them that seek me 
early shall find me. You and them, I am told, had a long dis- 
pute about nothing. 

Whomsoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him 
twain. Unless as I said. Sirs, you are masters, and not me. 
Are you as old as him? Mary can write nearly as well as mc. 
Such notions should be avowed at this time by none but fanat- 



2 34 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

tics as mad as me. A man of business in good company, is 
hardly more insupportable than her they called a notable 
woman. A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's 
wrath is heavier than them both. Solomon who was wiser 
than them all. Those whom the Jews thought were the last 
to be saved, were the first to enter the kingdom of God. This 
is the young lady whom obtained the prize for the best essay 
on " Propriety of Conduct." You are a much greater loser 
than me by his death. In whom I am nearly concerned, and 
whom I knew would be very apt to justify my whole pi'o- 
cedure. They and us took a long walk towards the lake, and 
visited she on our return. Them are the finest peaches I ever 
saw. Whom was elected speaker after the death of the vice- 
president? Tell Robert that I know more about it than' him. 
So that " He is greater than me," will be more grammatical 
than, ''He is greater than I." We sorrow^ not as them that 
have no hope. They would be under the dominion, absolute 
and unlimited, of whomsoever might exercise the right of judg- 
ment. None of his school-fellows is more wiser than him. If 
he suffers, he suffers as them that have no hope. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences in which the subject shall be a noun or 
pronoun of the singular number. Five in which it shall be of 
the plural number. Five in wdiicli the subject shall be an 
infinitive or part of sentence. Five having the subject placed 
after the predicate, 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule First ? 
Repeat the caution. 



i 



SYNTAX. — RULE II. 235 

What is said of every nominative case? 

What is generally the subject of a verb ? 

Wliat is sometimes used in place of a noun ? 

Where is the subject usually written ? 

When a question is asked without an interrogative ? 

When the verb is in the imperative mood ? 

What is said of a noun and its pronoun ? 

What is said of the subject in abridged propositions ? 

What is the subject of the verb in the passive voice ? 



RULE II, 

§ 316. A verb must agree with its subject in 
number and person; e. g.^ '^ William writes." 

Explanation. — This rule means that the verb must always 
be of the same person and number as its subject. In the propo- 
sition " William writes," the subject " William^'' is of the third 
person singular ; the verb is put in the same person and num 
her to agree with it. 

Caution. — Tliis rule is violated by putting the verb in 
any other number and person than the subject ; e. g., "A life 
of prayer am the life of heaven." Corrected, " A life of prayer 
is the life of heaven." 

Remark 1. — Every finite verb must have a subject expressed or under- 
stood; e. g., ^^Mary improves quite rapidly;" " William wrote to hia 
mother." 

Remark 2. — When an infinitive, or clause of a sentence is the subject, 
the verb must be of the third person singular; e. g., " To do good is the 
duty of all men ;" " That we difTer in opinion is not strange." 

Remark 3. — When a verb has two or more nominatives connected b^ 



236 SYNTAX.— RULE II. 

andj it agrees with them in the plural number; e. g., "John and Thomas 
are good boys." 

Note. — This remark applies to infinitives and clauses used as subjects; 
e. g., "To be rich, and to be happy, are different things." 

Exception 1. — When the nommatives relate to one person or thing, 
the verb must be in the singular ; e. g., " That good man, and exemplary 
Christian is no more." 

Exception 2. — When two or more nominatives, connected by and, are 
preceded by eacli^ every, no, not, or some disuniting word, they must be 
taken separately; e. g., "Every man, every woman, and every child was 
killed." " John, and not Henry, atiendsy " Each book and paper was 
kept by itself." 

Remark 4. — ^Two or more nominatives in the singular number con- 
nected by or or nor^ require a singular verb ; e. g., " Either John or his 
brother will leave for the city in the morning." "Nor eye, nor listening 
ear, an oh^QGt finds; creation sleeps." 

Remark 5. — When nominatives of different numbers are separated by 
or or nor. the verb agrees with them in the plural ; e. g., " Neither Ma- 
tilda nor her sisters have arrived^ 

Remark 6. — When collective nouns imply unity, the verb agrees with 
them in the singular; e. g., " The mob was disjpersedy 

Note. — It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun 
expresses unity or plurality. It is the custom of our best writers and 
speakers to use the plural where the singular is not obviously required. 

Remark 7. — A nominative after rnany a has a verb in the singular; 
e. g., " Many a man has tried to be rich, but in vain." 

Remark 8. — Nouns used figuratively in the singular of a plural signifi- 
cation require a plural verb; e. g., "There are seventy head in the 
flock." 

Remark 9. — When a verb has several persons connected by and, it 
agrees with the first rather than the second, and the second rather than 
the third ; e. g., " He and I shared it between us " 

Remark 10. — When a verb has several persons connected by or or nor^ 
it agrees in person with the one next to it ; e. g., " Either you or I am 
mistaken." 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 237 

Remark 11. — When a verb is placed between two nominatives of a 
di:;erent number, it may agree with either. In genertil it agrees with tho 
H st ; e. g., " WorJs arc wind." 

Rfmaric 12. — The verb do should never be substituted for any term to 
whijh irs'own meaning is not adapted; e. g., "When we see how con- 
fide. ;tly men rest on groundless surmises in one thing, we cannot wonder 
that tluy do it in refereuco to others." It would be better to say — " that 
taej' so reslj^' »tc. 

EXEPtCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercisea 

The scales am turned. The clouds has dispersed. Am she 
expected? Is you here? Circumstances alters cases. Idlers 
liates study. Some people is busy, yet do very little. The 
time and place was agreed upon. Temperance and exercise 
preserves the body. The number of our days am with thee. 
How does your plans succeed? Twenty head of cattle was 
grazing in the field. To utter such w^ords are wrong. A 
variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. To labor night 
and day fatigue the mind. Not her beauty, but her talents, 
attracts attention. Wisdom, not wealth, procure esteem. 
Either the boy or the girl were present. That distinguished 
poet and scholar are dead. Neither he nor I intends to be 
there. Politics does not always improve a man's fortune. 
To live sobeily, righteously and godly, are required of all. 
We need not argue any longer, for them's my sentiments. 
We was delighted w^ith the 'excursion. Your father's energy 
and industry was remarkable. Every leaf, every twig, every 
drop of water, teem with life. 

In France the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle 
class makes use of wooden shoes. A tart reply, a pronenesa 



238 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

to rebuke, or "^ captious spirit, are capable of embittering 
domestic life. The Congress of tlie United States are com- 
posed of a senate, and bouse of representatives. Generation 
after generation pass away. The author or his works is in 
fault. The general, with some of the soldiers, were taken. 
So much of ability and merit are seldom found. To be ignor- 
ant of such things are now inexcusable. Many a broken ship 
have come to land. The public is respectfully invited to 
attend the lecture. Patience and diligence, like faith, removes 
mountains. A man's being rich, or his being poor, do not 
aflfect his character for integrity. Two dozen is as many as 
you can take. When sickness, infirmity, or misfortune affect 
us, the sincerity of friendship is tried. Everybody are kind 
to her, and not discourteous to me. So all are indebted to 
each, and each are dependent on all. Technical terms in- 
judiciously introduced, is another source of darkness. The 
origin of the Grecian and Roman republics, though equally 
involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events, 
present one remarkable distinction. 

A multitude of words in their dialect approaches to the 
Teutonic form, and therefore affords excellent assistance. 
Small as the number of inhabitants are, yet their poverty is 
extreme. The greatest part of human gratifications approaches 
nearly to vice. Humility and knowledge w^ith poor apparel, 
excels pride and ignorance under costly array. The tone and 
style of each of them, particularly the first and the last, is dif- 
ferent. In all writing and discourse, the proper composition 
and structure of sentences is of the highest importance. Com 
mon sense as well as piety tell us these are proper. At every 
urn the richest melody as w^ell as the sublimest sentiments 
are conspicuous. Every private Christian and member of the 
church ought to read and peruse the Scriptures, that they may 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. — QUESTIONS. £39 

Know their faith and belief am founded on them. A noun or 
proiioun joined with a participle constitute the nominative 
independent. A rusty nail or crooked pin, shoot up into 
prodigies. Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor 
that particular distress Avhich forced the inhabitants of Boston 
to take up arms, have been thought worthy of a moment's 
consideration. It ought to be avoided even on this ground, 
which may easily be done by using a different construction. 
To speak or to write perspicuously is attainments of the great- 
est importance. The pleasure or pain resulting from a train of 
perceptions in diff'erent circumstances, are a beautiful con- 
trivance of nature for valuable purposes. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences having a verb of the first, or second 
person of the indicative present. Five, in which the verb shall 
be of the third person. Five, in which it shall be the present, 
past, or future of the progressive form. Five, in which it 
shall be used interrogatively. Five, in which it shall be sec- 
ond present, second past, or second future. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Ptule Second ? 

Explain it. 

How is the rule violated ? 

What must every finite verb have, expressed or understood ? 

When the subject of the verb is an infinitive or clause, of 
what person must it be ? 

When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by 
aadj how does it agree with them ? 



240 SYNTAX. — RULE III. 

What is said of the use of this rule ? 

What is the first exception? 

Mention the second. 

AVhen two or more nominatives in the singular number are 
connected by or or nor^ how must the verb agree with them ? 

When the nominatives separated by or or nor are of difier- 
ent numbers, of what number must the verb be ? 

When collective nouns imply unity, how must the verb 
agree with them ? 

What direction is o^iven for difficult cases in the note ? 

What is said of nominatives after many a ? 

When a noun is used figuratively in the singular, having a 
plural signification, of what number is the verb? 

When a verb has several persons connected by and^ with 
which does it ao-ree ? 

When the verb has several persons connected by or or nor^ 
with which does it agree ? 

When a verb is placed between two nominatives of a differ' 
ent number, with which does it agree ? 

What is remarked of the verb do ? 



RULE III. 

§ 317. A noun or pronoun used to limit the 
action of a transitive verb, must be in the object- 
ive ; e. g., " William writes letters^' 



>) 



Explanation. — In the sentence "William writes letters" 
ll'te noun letters is used to limit the action of the transitive 
verb writes to a particular object. 

Caution. — This rule is violated by putting the noun or pro- 



SYNTAX.— RULE III. 241 

noun limiting the action expressed by the verb, in any other 
case than the objective. 

Note. — Participles are modified in the same way as their 
verbs. 

EEifARK 1. — An infinitive, a participial noun, or a clause, may be used 
to limit the action of a transitive verb; e. g., "Boys love to play ;^^ 
''Children love playing ;" "I know that you will be an attentive pupiV^ 

Remark 2. — When the subject and object are nouns, the object la 
usually placed after the verb ; e. g., " Robert called Henry.''' When the 
subject or object is a pronoun, the order may be varied without obscuring 
the sense. Sometimes the objective is rendered more emphatic by being 
placed first ; e. g., ** Jlim he slew." 

When the objective is a relative or interrogative, it precedes both the 
verb and its nominative ; e. g, *'The man whom we sav/ is dead." "TWiom 
did you see ?" 

Remark 3. — The object of the verb, if possible, should not be separated 
from it by an intervening clause ; e. g., *' We could not discover^ for the 
want of proper tests, the quality of the metal." Better, " We could not, 
for want of proper tests, discover the quality of the metal." 

Remark 4. — The object of the verb is omitted, when it is something in- 
definite or easily supplied ; e. g., " William reads." 

Remakk 5. — Transitive verbs are sometimes improperly used as in- 
transitive; e. g., "We premise with three circui^stances ;" "I cannot 
allow (f that." The preposition should bo expunged in each of these 
sentences. 

Remark 6. — Intransitive verbs are sometimes improperly used as traa- 
sitive ; e. g., *' He repented hiin of the design." Him should be ex- 
punged ; •' lie repented of the design." 

Remark 7. — A few intransitive verbs are foHowed by an object of 
kindred signification: e. g., "In consequence of hor disposition, Jane 
lives an unhappy li/e.^^ 

(1.) To this usiige miy be referred such expressions as the follow**:^; :— 
*' The brooks ran nectar ;" " The trees wept gicjns and bal/ns ;" " Her lipi 
blushed deeper swettsJ^ 

11 



242 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

(2.) To this rule also belongs the objective after causa ives; as, "Ho 
runs a stage;" "Thomas walked the horse." 

Remark 8, — Yerbs signifying to ask, to teach, to call, to allovr, to 
make, to constitute, and some others, are followed by two objectives ; e. g., 
" He asked 7ne a question ;^^ "Henry gave Robert his hooh ;^^ " The people 
elected him presidtnV 

(1.) In such sentences, in the passive voice, the direct object is made 
the subject of the verb, and the indirect follows it ; e. g., " They named 
him John ,-" Passive, " He was named Johny In loose composition tlie 
remote object is sometimes made the subject, and the immediate remains 
in the- objective after the verb ; e. g., "A hook was promised me." 

(2.) When the remote object comes between the verb and the imme- 
diate object, the immediate object should be made the object of relation ; 
e. g., "Henry gave his book to Rolert.''^ 



EXERCISES FOE CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

He that is idle and mischievous, reprove. Who do you think 
I saw ? I cannot allow of that. He invited my brother and I 
to dine with him. Fear he who can reward and punish. He 
repented him of the design. His servants ye are to whom ye 
obey. He was afforded an opportunity to repent. Your 
teacher does not allow of quarreling. Rufus was furnished a 
seat. Your friend was told of the fact some days since. We 
were shown several fine pictures. Robert Norris w^as taught 
grammar. The boys do not want for encouragement. I have 
been asked the question, and should like to know the truth 
about it. Believers are not promised temporal riches. These 
are the persons who you should esteem. He and they we 
know, but who are you ? The man who he raised from 
obscurity, is dead. I was offered employment in the city, but 
did not lite the terms. 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES.— QUESTIONS. 243 

This is a friend who you must cordially receive. We were 
show several beautiful pictures when we visited the rooms of 
the artist. Xo teacher should allow of such a practice, for it 
will injure his reputation. The troops pursued, without wait- 
ing to rest, the enemies to their gates. I was paid a dollar 
for my services. Who should I meet the other day but my 
old friend ? Bicket could not better discover than by attack- 
ing so powerful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right. 
Henrv did not want for encourasrement. Though he now 
takes pleasure in them, he will one day repent him of indul- 
gences so unwarrantable. To ingratiate with some by tra- 
ducing others marks a little mind. How shall the people 
know who to entrust with their property and their liberties. 
Covet earnestly for the best gifts. False accusations cannot 
diminish from his real merit. He invited my brother and I 
to call and examine his library. Who did they send on so 
important an errand ?- 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences illustratinor the rule. Write five sen- 
tences containing an example of a transitive verb limited by 
an infinitive. Five, by a participial noun. Five, by a clause. 
Write five sentences havinor a relative or interroQ:ative before 
the verb. Five, changing an intransitive into a transitive verb. 
Five, having a direct and indirect object. Five, having the 
direct object as the subject of a verb in the passive voice. 

' QUESTIONS. 

vVhat is Rule Third? 
Explain it. 



244 SYNTAX. — RTJLE IV. 

Repeat the caution. 

What is observed in remark first ? 

When the subject and object are nouns, where is the object 
usually placed ? 

When the object is a relative or interrogative ? 

What is remarked of the position of the object in general? 

When may the object be omitted ? 

What is said of transitive verbs ? 

What is remarked of intransitive verbs ? 

When do they admit of an object ? . 

What is said of verbs of asking^ teaching^ &c. ? 

What is said of such sentences in the passive voice ? 

When the remote object comes between the verb and its 
immediate object, how is the immediate object disposed of? 

RULE IV. 

§ 318. A noun or pronoun used to identify 
another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in 
the same case; e. g., "Brother William writes 
letters." 

Explanation. — A noun or pronoun is said to be in apposi- 
tion, when it is added to another noun or pronoun by way of 
explanation or description. In the sentence, " Brother William 
writes letters," the noun " William'^ is added to distinguish 
what brother is meant. 

Remark 1. — This rule supposes the first word to be the principal 
terra. In prose it is almost invariably the case, but in poetry the ex- 
planatory word is often placed first ; e. g., 

" Poor wanderers of a stormy day, 
From wave to wave we're driven." 



SYNTAX. — RULE IV. 245 

Remark: 2. — "When, for the sake of emphasis, the same name is re- 
peated, it is in apposition with the former; e. g., '* Comjmny, villainous 
company^ hath been the spoil of me." 

Remark 3. — A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence ; 
e. g., "The maxim, ' Enough in as good as a feasV has silenced many a 
vain wish." 

Remark 4. — A plural terra is sometimes put in apposition with two or 
more noims, to combine and give them emphasis ; e. g., " Time, labor, 
money, all were lost." 

REiiARK 5. — AVhen possessives are put in apposition, the form is used 
only with one of thorn ; e. g., ^^John the Baptist's head." 

Remark G.— Names or titles employed to distinguish individuals of 
a family or class ; e. g., " F. M. Peterson, M. D., L. C. Garland, LL. D., 
H. Talbird, D. D.," &c., &e., are parsed by some as in apposition. It is 
better to regard them as complex nouns, and parse them as such. 

Remark 1. — Some teach, " that the words in the cases preceding and 
following to he are in apposition with each other." This is not consistent 
with the proper meaning jof the term, for it assumes that the literal read- 
ing, when the supposed ellipsis is supplied, is in apposition still. In the 
exercise of parsing, the rule for apposition should be applied only to tho 
explanatory term. 

Remark 8. — Sometimes as, denoting capacity, rank or office^ intervenes 
between two nouns, one of which is in apposition with the other; e. g., 
*'The moon as satellite attends." 

REirARK 9. — The proper name of a place, instead of being put in appo- 
aition with the common name, usually follows the preposition of; e. g., 
" The city of Gharlesiony 

Remark 10. — Distributives are sometimes in apposition with a plural 
Bubstantive ; e. g., *' They fled, some one way, and some another;" *' Go 
ye, every man to his city." Also the first of words denoting reciproca- 
tion ; e. g., " TJiey love one another;" that is, one loves another. *' TJiey 
yon fide in each other. ^^ 



246 6YKTAX, — EXEECISES. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

Have you heard from your cousin, she that I saw with you 
in Marion at the last concert ? Alfred returned, him who went 
to the office with Willis for Parson Henderson. Has your 
sister recovered, her that was lately sick ? Give it to James, 
he who stands at the door. The grammar was bought of 
Mr. Peas, he that keeps the book-store in Columbus. I spoke 
of Milton, he who wrote Paradise Lost. -Mary, her who you 
sent to me, came late in the evening. We were talking of 
Cromwell, he who beheaded Charles. We have just visited 
our frieuils, they that live in town. Mary, Queen of Scots, her 
that was beheaded, was a lady of rare endowments. It was 
Virgil, him who wrote the JEneid. The servant has arrived, 
him whom you saw. Do you speak so to me, I who have 
raised you ? Patrick Henry, him who made the parsons trem- 
ble, w^is their only advocate. Let us worship the Lord, he 
who is from everlasting to everlasting. Blame me not, I who 
have labored so much for you. 

Christ and him crucified was the Alpha and Omega of all 
his addresses, the fountain and the foundation of his hope and 
trust. The w^ord came not to Esau, the hunter that stayed not 
at home ; but to Jacob, the plain man that dwelt in tents. 

" Amidst the tumult of the routed train. 
The sons of false Antimachus were slain ; 
He, who for bribes his faithless counsels sold. 
And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold." — Pope. 



SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. — RULE V. 247 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five examples in which the noun in apposition shall 
De in the nominative case, modifying the subject. Five, in 
which it shall be in the nominative, modifying the predicate 
noun. Five, in which it shall be in the objective, modifying a 
noun, used as the object of a verb or preposition. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Fourth ? 

Explain it. 

In apposition, which is the principal term? 

What exception to this rule ? 

When a noun is repeated for the sake of emphasis, how is it 
parsed ? 

What is said of the use of a plural term ? 

What is the rule w^hen possessives are put in apposition ? 

What is said of the use of titles or names employed to dis- 
tinccuish individuals of a family or class ? 

What is said of words after to he ? 

What is said of as denoting capacity, rank, or office ? 

What is said of the proper name of a place ? 

What is said of distributives ? 



RULE V. 

§ 319. A noun or pronoun used to limit the 
relation of ownership, source or kind, is put in 
the possessive; e. g., ^'Alfrects knife;" "Suns 
rays;" " Webster s Dictionary." 



248 SYNTAX. — KULE V. 

Explanation. — A noun in tlie possessive limits its governing 
word, by representing it as owned, proceeding from, or describ- 
ing tlie tbing possessed. " Alfred's knife ;" " Sun's rays ;" 
" Webster's Dictionary ;" — here Alfred's denotes ownersbip ; 
Sini'Sj source ; and Wcbste?'^s, kind. 

Caution. — Particular care sbould be taken not to omit the 
sign of tbe possessive before participial nouns ; and not to use 
it in the possessive of pronouns. 

Note. — The relation of the possessive is one of dependence ; 
the name on which the possessive term depends, must therefore 
be expressed or understood. This dependence may be shown 
either by a change of termination, or by a preposition ; e. g., 
'' Alfred's knife," == " The knife 0/ Alfred." 

Remark: 1. — The name denoting the thing limited, when obvious is 
often omitted ; e. g., "I called at Sheldon's (s^ore) before I left town;" 
* This book is John's {booJc.y' 

Remark 2. — W^hen two or more nouns are connected in the possessive, 
expressing joint possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the 
last; e.g., "Have you exskmined Andrews and Stoddard^ s Latin Gram- 
mar?" 

Remark 3. — DiiETerent things of the same name, belonging to two or 
more severallj^, should have the sign of the possessive annexed to each ; 
e.g., '■^ JolinsorCs^ Wahster'^s^ and TFa^/ier's Dictionary." 

Remark 4. — Complex nouns in apposition have the sign of tlie possess- 
ive annexed to the last; e. g., "Thomas Jefferson's administration;" 
*'Give me John the Baptist's head;" "The Bishop of Loudon's charge." 
Here Thomas Jefftrson's is a complex noun in the possessive. In the sen- 
tence " Give me John the Baptist's head," John is in the possessive with- 
out the sign, that being annexed to the word Baptist, in apposition. In 
the last example, London is in the objective case, used to complete the 
.-elation of the preposition 0/, the '5 belongs properly to Bishop, in the 
possessive limiting charge. The true reason for annexing the '5 to Lon 
don is that tli? whole phrase ''''Bishop of London^"* is regarded as one term 



SYNTAX. — RULE V. 249 

Remark 5. — ^The possessive is often expressed by the preposition of 
with tlie objective; e. g., "The residence of my father is in the city of 
New York." 

(1.) " The residence of my father is in the city of New York ;" — in this 
sentence, "The residence of my father," and "My father*s residence," ex- 
press the same idea. Either form may be used with propriety. 

(2.) Of does not always denote possession. "A crown of gold," signi- 
fies " A crown made of gold ;" "A house of representatives," signifies "A 
house consisting of representatives." In such cases the possessive cannot 
be used. 

(3.) When the idea may be expressed by either of these forms, care 
should be observed to use that, by which harshness and ambiguity may 
be avoided. Instead of "his son's wife's sister," we should say, "the 
stster of his son's wife." "The love of God," may denote either the love 
which God feels, or ihe love which is felt towards God ; but "God's love" 
denotes only the love which God feels. 

Remark 6. — ^When the singular ends with the sound of s or z, the 5 
after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted to avoid the disagreeable repe- 
tition of s sounds; e. g.^ "For righteousness* sake;" "For coTiscience^ 
sake;" "For Jesus'* sake." The apostrophe is sometimes omitted im- 
properly; e.g., " Ja?7ies' book;" " if i55' shoes;" "i/bnV agreement." 

Remark Y. — A participial noun, either alone or modified by other 
words, may be placed after the possessive case ; e. g., "I am opposed to 
William's devoting himself so exclusively to one study ;" " I must object to 
Alfred's leaving home at this season of ihe year^ This is one of the most 
common idioms of our language, and no other case than the possessive 
should be used in the preceding and similar sentences. 

Remark 8. — The clause of a sentence should never come between the 
possessive and the object limited; e.g., "The prisoner's (if I may be 
permitted to express my opinion) conduct was such as to convey the idea 
of h's guilt to" all but his nearest friends;" it should be, " The prisoner's 
conduct was such as to convey the idea of his guiit to all but his nearest 
friends, if I may be permitted to express my opinion." 



250 SYNTAX.— EXERCISES. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

Edward's portrait does not resemble him mucli. What was 
the reason of father's dismissing him before the expiration of 
the year ? For Ilerodias sake, his brother Philip's wife. That 
silk was purchased at Sheldons, the mercers in Greensboro'. 
I will not for Davids thy fathers sake. Your brother married 
my sons wifes sister. This is the eldest son of the king of 
Englands. The estate of the corporation is much embarrassed. 
This picture of Janes does not resemble her much. It is often 
said, that one mans loss is anothers gain. The tree is known 
by it's fruit. Mason's and Dixon line has been the theme of 
much dispute. The worlds government is not left to chance. 
Asas heart was perfect with the Lord. William's and Mary' 
College is an old institution. Daniel's Webster speech was 
much admired for its clearness. Have you examined Brown, 
and Bullion's Grammars. I admire Wordsworths and Cow- 
pcrs poems. They obeyed the Protectors (as he was called) 
mandate. His brothers offence will not condemn him in the 
estimation of the public. Wisdoms precepts form the good 
mans happiness. We purchase sugar and coffee at Dormans. 
You should be subject for conscience sake. 

The time of William making the experiment has come. 
Much depend on this rule being observed. Edward' generous 
conduct to his orphan brother, was the evenings conversation. 
The paintings of Reynolds', West, and Lawrence are worthy 
of the highest admiration. Some seem to have no notion of 
the same })erson possessing different accomplishments. They 
condemned king Corney's, as he was called, dissolute habits. 
It was the men's, women's, and childi'en's lot to suffer calami- 
ties. The bill passed the Lords' house, but was defeated in the 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 251 

Commons' liouso. Mucli depends on your pupil composing 
frequently. Such will ever be the consequence of youth as- 
sociating with vicious company. The extent of the prerogative 
of the president has been ascertained, John's brother's wife's 
mother is not expected for some weeks. The severity of the 
illness of the son of the carpenter caused groat alarm. We 
spent an agreeable hour at AVilson, the banker in Selma, a 
short time since. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, 
arc natures best gifts. King James translators merely revised 
former translations. 

Wisdoms precepts' form the good mans happiness and in- 
terest. Moses rod was turned into a serpent. If you suffer 
for righteousness sake, you shall be rewarded with life ever- 
lasting. It was found necessary to have both the physician's 
and the suro;eons advice. The time of John makino; the ex- 
periment at length arrived. What can be the cause of the 
president refusing to veto the bill ? If \ve alter the situation 
of any words, we shall presently be sensible of the melody 
suffering:. Such will ever be the effect of vouth associatit.fj 
with the company of idlers. It is very probable that this 
assembly was called, to clear some doubt which the king had 
about the lawfulness of the Hollanders throwing: off the mon-- 
archy of Spain, and their withdraw^ing entirely their allegiance 
to that crowm. These pictures of sister were taken by a very 
distinguished artist in Charleston. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example in which a pos- 
sessive noun or pronoun shall limit the subject. Five, the 
predicate. Five, a noun in apposition. Five, a noun in the 
oljective after a transitive verb or preposition. 



252 SYNTAX.— QUESTIONS. — RULE VI. 

QUESTIONS* 

What is Rule Fifth ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

AYhen may the noun limited be omitted ? 

When two or more nouns are connected in the possessive, 
expressing joint possession, to which is the sign annexed ? 

What is remarked of different thino-s of the same name 
belonging to two or more severally ? 

AVhat is said of complex nouns in apposition? 

How is the possessive often expressed ? 

What is said of the sound of s or z? 

What is said of participial nouns ? 

What is said of a clause coming between the possessive and 
the noun limited ? 



RULE VI. 

§ 320. Adjectives relate to nouns which they 
describe or limit; e. g., " Good boys ;" *'^ man; 
"T^elady;" " Either h^i;" "i^^W dollars. 



J) 



>J 



Explanation. — The word adjective signifies added to. Its 
office is to modify the noun by describing or limiting its 
meaning ; e. g., " Good boys ;" " A man ;" &c. — Here the office 
of the adjective good is to describe boys ; in the example, "^ 
man," a limits man. 

Caution. — Adjectives denoting one must have nouns in the 
singular; those denoting more than one, in the plural; e. g., 
" This girl ;" " Those boys." 



SYNTAX.— RULE VI. 253 

Remark 1. — Anything used as a noun, an infinitive, participle, or 
clause, may have an adjective belonging to it ; e. g., " To use ji^'ofane 
language is foolish and wicked;'''' "George and John are more studious 
than William." 

Remark 2. — An infinitive and a participial noun are sometimes found 
with an adjective after them not quahfying any particular noun, but used 
indefinitely ; e. g., " To be good is the surest way of being happy y 

Remark 3. — Adjectives without a noun expressed are often used as 
nouns; e. g., "The rich and the ^oor meet together;" "Of books, some 
are good, and some are bad." 

Remark 4. — Two or more adjectives expressing qualities that belong 
each to a different objoct of the same name, and that expressed only with 
the last, should have a definitive before each ; e. g., " The red and the 
white rose." So " The first and the second page." It has become com- 
mon, even with good writers, to drop the second definitive, and change 
the singular into the plural ; e. g., " The first and second pagos." 

Remark 5. — When two objects are spoken of or compared, use the 
comparative degree ; when more than iwo, the superlative ; o. g., " James 
is the more industrious boy of the two ; but Alfred, the most industrious 
pupil in school." 

Remark 6. — The comparative is used in the manner of the superlative, 
when two of the same class are compared ; e. g., " John is the wiser of 
the two." We sometimes say, "the it; wes^ of the two." 

•Remark 7. — Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided 
in speaking and writing ; e. g., " More wiser ;" " lesser ;" " vjorser ;" 
" most straitesty But lesser in some cases is used by good writers ; e. g., 
" Lesser Asia ;" *' Like lesser streams." 

Remark 8. — Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative significa- 
tion, and such as do not admit of increase or diminution, should not be 
compared ; e. g., Chief extreme^ perfect^ right, universal, supreme, square, 
round, &c., &c. 

Remark 9. — Adjectives are often used to qualify a noun qualified by 
another ; e. g., " Ripe winter fruits." In such cases that which relates 
more nearly to the noun should be placed next to it ; e. g., " My sister 
^ias a nice new book;" not a " new nice book." 



254 SYNTAX. — RULE VI. 

Remark 10. — Adjectives often qualify nouns as the effect of verbs ; e. g., 
•' Sweet apples boil hard,^^ 

Remark 11. — The definitive a should be used before words beginning 
with a consonant, or u sounded like yu ; e. g., "^ man ;" " A unicorn." 
An is used only before words beginning with a vowel, or silent h; e. g., 
" An apple ;" ^^ An hour." 

Re:mark 12. — Yv^hen two or more descriptive adjectives belong to a 
noun representing but one object, the definitive adjective should not be 
repeated; e. g., "J. red and white flag;" that is, one flag having two 
colors. But when two or more adjectives belong to a noun used to repre- 
sent as many different objects as there are adjectives employed, the defini- 
tive adjective must be repeated ; e. g., *' We saw a black, a white, a bay, 
and a roan horse ;" that is, four horses of the colors described. 

Remark 13. — The definitives a and the are sometimes used adverbially 
to modify adjectives or adverbs; e. g., ** J. few men help a little;" " The. 
oilener I see it, the better I like it." 

Remark 14. — The definitive adjective the is sometimes used before a 
singular poun to denote a species ; e. g., " The horse is a noble animal." 

Remark 15. — A noun taken in a general sense is commonly used with- 
out a definitive; e. g., ^^ Man is mortal;" *' Vice is odious;" ^^ Fruit is 
abundant." 

Remark 16. — A or an, one, this, that, each, every, either, neither, and 
the ordinals Jirst, second, third, &c , &c., relate to nouns of the singular 
number only, or such as convey a collective idea ; e. g., " A man ;" ^^One 
boy ;" " Each committee ;" " Every person." 

Remark 17. — These, those, few, several, all, and the cardinals above one, 
relate to nouns of the plural number only ; e. g., *' These men;" *' Those 
boys;" &c., &c. 

Remark 18. — Former, latter, the, any, such, some, what, &c., &c., relate 
to nouns of the singular or plural number; e. g., *' Tlie children are in tlie 
garden ;" " Such fruit is scarce." 

Remark 19. — When objects are contrasted, that and those refer to tho 
first mentioned, and this and these to the last ; e. g., " Virtue and vice are 
as opposite to each other as light and darkness ; that ennobles the mind, 
Uiis debases it." 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 255 

Reiiark 20. — An adjective is commonly placed before its noun ; eg., 
"ul good citizen ;" ^' A virtuous woman is an ornament to society " 

(1.) Adjectives should be placed as near their nouns as possible to avoid 
ambiguity; e. g., '' A field o^ fine oats." 

(2.) When an adjective modilies two or more nouns connected by and^ 
it is usually expressed before the first, and understood before the others ; 
e. g., *' He was a man o^ great wisdom and moderation.''^ 

Remark 21. — An adjective is placed after its noun : 

(1.) Generally when it qualifies a pronoun; e. g., " We saw hmi fwint 
and lueary.''^ 

(2.) AYhen other words depend on the adjective ; e. g., " A child sick 
of the fever.^^ 

(3.) When it is predicated of the subject ; e. g., *' God is good;'''' ''Jack 
son was hrave.^^ 

Remark: 22. — In poetry and a few other cases, the adjective is placed 
either before or after its noun, and often some distance from it. 

Remark 23. — Quality is expressed by adjectives ; manner, by adverbs ; 
e. g., "We grow (become) oK" "Corn grows rapidly (in a rapid 
manner)." - 

Remark 24. — An adjective is used when the sense is nearly expressed 
by the use of to le or to 'become ; and an adverb when expressed by the 
corresponding adjunct ; e. g., 

Adjectives. Adverbs. "• 

Men grow (become) old. The boy grows rapidly (in a rapid manner). 
She looks (is) cold. She looks coldly (in a cold manner) on him. 

We feel (are) warni. We feel wannly (in a warm manner) the insult. 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

Jane is more taller than Martha. An industrionser scholar 
is esteemed by his teacher. John is a worscr boy than Tlioin- 
as. Henrv has a bitrorer hat than his brotlier. John lias mucher 
pea''hes than Thomas. Williams conduct displayed the most 



256 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

sincerest candor. Was the rumor in regard to Henry an 
universal one ? Robert is a honorable and trusty lad. John 
Henderson gave Mary an red apple. An just man always acts 
consistently. Them boys are low bred. I will thank you for 
that siiuffers. He maintained an uniform conduct. Where 
have you laid them scissors ? The most highest created man 
for his own glory. Have you any kid gentlemans gloves ? I 
ha\ e not seen Henry this ten days. In the accomplishment 
of til at plan the most extremest caution must be observed, or 
defeat is certain. Martha and Jane are both well-dressed ; in 
their appearance Martha is the neatest, but Jane the most 
sliovvy, I want to obtain a mirror of the most perfect polish. 

Have you any black lady's gloves ? I heard an Unitarian 
preach yesterday. Mason is a man of the most smallest caliber 
in Columbia. Them books were sold for a lesser price than 
cost. John Vi^alked two mile in half a hour. These kind of 
books are very scarce. 

Henry formed expensive habits, and by those means became 
very poor. That very subject which we were discussing is yet 
involved in mystery. Draw that line more perpendicular. 
If you are fond of those sort of things, you may have them. 
A more healthier place is not to be found in Alabama, or any 
other State in the Union. Who broke that tongs? That 
tree is sixty foot high. Wealth and poverty are both tempta- 
tions to man ; this tends to excite pride, that discontent. The 
mocking-bird's note is the most sweetest in the grove. I never 
read them books. Will you take some of those molasses? If 
either of these two qualities are wanting, the language is im- 
perfect. Every one of us have recited our lesson. Them men 
spoke to me. Each of you are entitled to your share. There 
was a blot on the first or second pages. This vessel of which 
you spoke yesterday, sailed in the evening. This figure is a 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 257 

more perfect circle than that is. A worser evil yet awaits ns. 
If you are fond of those sort of things^ you are welcome to 
thenu The first and second verse of the ode are better than 
the third and fourth. It is said that a lieet of six sails have 
just entered the bay. Religion raises men above tliemselves, 
irrelio'ion sinks them beneath the brutes; that binds them 
down to a poor pitiable speck of earth, this opens for them a 
prospect in the skies. 

Uncle bought an old span of horses, and a new set of har- 
ness. Texas is laro-er than any State in the Union. Jane 
is always talking ; and by these means, she renders her- 
self ridiculous. Go quick to school ; enter the room slow and 
light. This sentiment has become too universal to be easily 
changed. Roberts letter to his parents was written neat. I 
regret to learn that he has become so extreme negligent. Give 
me a cool glass of water. William has prudence and industry, 
by that means he may be able to retrieve his losses. Your 
father told me what an exceeding long journey he took to visit 
his parents. 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION, 

Write five sentences containing an example in wdiich a de- 
finitive adjective shall modify the subject. Five, in which a 
descriptive adjective shall modify the predicate nominative. 
Five, in w^hich a definitive, and descriptive adjective shall 
modify the object of a verb or preposition. Five, in which the 
descriptive adjective, with the copula, shall form the predicate. 
Five, in which the adjective shall be of the comparative degree. 
Five, in which it shall be of the superlative degree. 



258 SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Sixth ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

What is said of anything used as a noun ? 

What is remarked of an infinitive and participial adjective? 

What is said of an adjective without a noun expressed? 

How is the definitive used before two or more adjectives 
expressing qualities that belong each to a difterent object of 
the same name, and that name expressed only with the last ? 

When two objects are sooken of or compared, what degree 
is used ? 

more than tw^o ? 

What is said of the comparative ? 

of double comparatives and superlatives ? 

— of adjectives having a superlative signification ? 



How are adjectives often used ? 

How do adjectives often qualify nouns? 

How is the definitive a used ? 

a7i ? 

When two or more descriptive adjectives belong to a noun 
representing but one object, what is said of the definitive? 

When two or more adjectives belong to a noun used to 
represent as many difi'erent objects as there are adjectives em- 
ployed, how must the definitive be used ? 

How are the definitives a and the sometimes used ? 

What is said of the definitive adjective before a singular 
noun ? 

What is said of a noun without a definitive? 

What is said of a or an, one^ this^ that, &c., &c. ? 

these^ those, few, several, &c., &c. ? 



SYNTAX. — RULE VII. 259 

What is said o^ former^ latter^ the,, any,, (fee, (fee? 
When objects are contrasted, what is said of the terms used? 
What is said of the position of adjectives ? 
When is an adjective placed after its noun? 
What is said of the position of the adjective in poetry, 
c, (fee? 
How is quality expressed ? 

manner? 

When do we use an adjective? 
an adverb ? 



RULE VII. 

§ 321. Pronouns must agree with their ante- 
<;edents in gender^ number and person; e.g., '^^ Wil- 
liam went to his play ;" " That man is happy vjJio 
lives virtuously;" " Whoever studies will become 
learned ;" " What did you do ?" 

Explanation. — The term antecedent means going before, 
" William went to his play ;" — here William is the antecedent 
of his, ^'' His''' is of the masculine gender, third, singular, to 
ao:ree with it. 

Caution. — This rule may be violated by using a singular 
pronoun for a plural, or a plural for a singular ; e. g., " Pride 
and poverty will soon show itself" (themselves). 

Note. — The improper use of who and which should be care- 
fully avoided ; e. g., " The lady which I saw, admired the rose 
whom you gave me." ''The lady whom I saw, admired the 
rose which you gave me/' 



260 SYNTAX. — RULE VII. 

Remark 1. — A pronoun referring to two or more antecedents taken 
together, agrees with them in the plural number; e. g., "John and 
Thomas desire to assist their teacher." 

REiiAEK 2. — A pronoun referring to two or more antecedents separateh^, 
agrees with them in the singular number; e. g., "John, not Thomas, losl 
his book." 

Remark 3. — ^Wlien either of the antecedents is of th^ plural number, 
the pronoun representing them must be plural; e.g., "Neither Thomas 
nor his cousins could find their books." 

Remark 4. — When the antecedents are of dijBTerent persons, the pro- 
noun agrees with the first in preference to the second, and the second in 
preference to the third ; e. g., " John and I have brought our books, but 
you and Thomas have left yours.'''* 

Remark 5.- — Collective nouns in the singular may have pronouns in the 
plural, when reference is made to the individuals composing the collec- 
tion ; e. g., " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

Remark 6. — The pronoun it is used variously : 

(1.) With impersonal verbs, it does not represent a noun, but in con- 
nection with the verb expresses merely a state of things; e. g., "/li 



rains y 



(2.) Before the verb to he, it may refer to a noun or pronoun in the 
predicate of either the singular or plural number, and of any person and 
gender; e. g., " It is a hoy who is coming;*' " Be not afraid, it is /;" " It 
is hooks that I lovo." In such constructions it may be regarded as an ex- 
pletive used to introduce the sentence in a particular manner. 

(3.) It sometimef? stands for the state or condition of things; e. g., " It 
shall be well with the righteous." 

(•i.) It is sometimes used without reference to the gender or number of 
the noun represented ; e. g., " The nurse took the child, when it cried." 

Remark 7. — Interrogative pronouns commonly refer to objects unknown 
to the speaker; hence the gender, number, and person must be assumec' 
until the person or thing enquired for becomes known. Although th 
pronoun in sucli cases may not agree with the actual object in question, 
consistency should be preserved in every reference to the assumed oiic ; 
^ g., " Wiio lu-^re not pleased with the spectacle they just witnessed." 



SYNTAX. — RULE VII. 261 

Remark 8. — The Eng^llsh language being destitute of a pronoun of the 
third person, which may apply equally to either sex, an erroneous use of 
theij^ referring to person^ any one, or some one, has been adopted to conceal 
the gender, or avoid an a^^•kward use of he, or she ; c. g., *'If any one 
would test these ruljs for the preservation of health, they {he or she) must 
persevere in all states of weather." The want of such a pronoun is still 
more obvious when the speaker has a definite person before his mind, and 
wishes to coaceal the gender; e. g., "The person who gave me this in- 
formation wishes to conceal name." 

Remark 9. — When the antecedent is used figuratively, the pronoun 
lepresented must be of the same gender; e. g., " Give to repose the sol- 
emn hour she claims." " G-rim darkness furls his leaden shroud." 

Remark 10. — Relative and interrogative pronouns are usually placed 
at the beginning of their clauses, even though the order of construction 
would assign another position ; e. g., '' The professor had but one son, 
'iuhom he educated himself." 

Remark 1 1. — When the pronoun has two antecedents of different per- 
sons, it agrees with the nearest ; e. g., "I who command you will bo 
obeyed." 

Re^iark 12. — The pronoun should be placed near its antecedent, to 
avoid ambiguity ; e. g., " John excelled his broUier, whom all thought the 
best scholar." 

Remark 13. — The relative is sometimes omitted; e. g., "This is the 
man (whom) I saw." 

Remark 14. — The relative who is applied to pdVsons, which to inferior 
animals or things without life; e. g., "This is the person who called;'* 
*' I have the book which he spoke of" 

Remark 15. — The construction of the relative is independent of its ante- 
o. d nt. It may be in the nominative case as the subject of a finite verb; — 
nnn'nativt i idi^pandent, possessive case or in the objective case governed by 
a iraiis'tive verb, or by a preposition; e. g., " They if;7io speak ; " "We 
c>rderod the horse to bo harnessed, which being done, we commenced our 
journey ;" " He hastened to the palace of his sovereign, into whose pres- 
ence his hoary locks and mournful visage soon obtained admission;" 



262 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

" Whom did you take him to be?" " The man wlwm they call the jani 
tor;" " This is the rule to which we called his attention." 

Remark 16. — ^T\^hen the relative is governed by a preposition, it is 
generally best to place the latter at the beginning of the clause ; e. g., 
"This is the subject to which ho alluded." 

Remark 17. — The relative that is used in preference to who or which in 

the following cases : 

(1.) After the superlative degree ; e. g., *'It is the best that I can do." 
(2.) After same and all ; e. g., "He is the same person that I took him 

to be ;" " It is all that he could find." 

(3.) After luho ; e. g., "Who that saw it believed?" 

(4.) After it used indefinitely; e. g., " It was he that did it." 

(5.) Whenever it is a matter of doubt whether who or which should be 

used. 

Remark 18. — Thai never admits of a preposition before it, but it may 
be the object of a preposition following it. AVe cannot say, " This is the 
man of that he spoke ;" but we may say, " This is the mian that he spoke 
o/" That is sometimes used when a preposition is omitted ; e. g., " In 
the diOif that thou eatest thereof" 

Remark 19. — ^It is inelegant to use who, or which and that in a series 
of clauses having the same antecedent. It would be improper to say, 
" The man thai met us and whom we saw;" it should be, " The man who 
met us," or " that we saw." 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION". 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

Jane and Martha are careful of Ler books. I hope every 
body in the house will answer for themselves. Every person 
should love their friend. You and I have broken my window. 
After eating its breakfast our company left. This is tlio man 
which spoke to you about working by the day. Susan and 
Mary will come, and she will remain a week. The chikl who 
you saw is quite sick. Rcbekah took goodly raiment and put 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 263 

t'loni o'l Jacob. He is like a beast of proy who destroys witli- 
o^it pitv. The child whom we have just seen is improperly 
attended to. The Saviour instructed and fed the crowds who 
surrounded him. They which seek wisdom will find her. One 
sliould not think too favorably of themselves. The moon ap- 
pears, but the light is not his own. The multitude eagerly 
pursue pleasure as its chief good. The council were divided 
in its sentiments. One cannot be too careful of their reputa- 
tion. This is the vice whom I most cordially hate. The na- 
tions who have the best rulers are most happy. It is the best 
situation which can be orot. This is the same horse who vou 
saw yesterday. I who speak unto you am he. The little child 
who was placed in their midst began to sing and prattle. The 
public are informed that its interest are well secured. The 
committee were about equally divided in its opinions in regard 
to the proper time to commence action. 

The court who gives currency to sucb manners should bo 
exemplary. If you intend to be a teacher, who you cannol be 
without education, you must improve every moment in stu'ly. 
This is the same cow you purchased a few wrecks since. The 
lady and the lapdog wdiich we saw in the window have dis- 
appeared. The majority was disposed to adopt the measure 
which they at first opposed. The church have no power 
to alopt the measure which it advocates. The story with 
all its additions were believed. A person c?.u content them- 
selves on small means. Those whicli desire to be happy 
.should be careful to do what is right. The judge which 
pronounced the sentence was an upright man. "I do not 
blame any person of being tender of their reputation. I 
have tasted the molasses, and they are excellent. The mind, 
as well as the body of man, demands his proper food. Dis- 
'^'utcnt and disappointment manifested itself in her counte- 



264 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

nance. Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian 
charity ; guard against the slightest indulgence of it. A man 
is not such a machine as a clock or watch, which will move 
only as they are moved. The meeting was not unanimous, 
and it separated without coming to a decision. Henry met 
several crowds on the road, who were goiiig to court. It is 
the best which can be got. Solomon w^as the wisest man whom 
the world ever saw. I do not think of any one who should 
incur censure for being tender of their reputation. Humility 
is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. If 
he will not hear his best friends, whom shall be sent to ad- 
monish him ? 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of a personal 
pronoun in the nominative singular. Five, containing a per- 
sonal pronoun in the possessive singular. Five, containing a 
personal pronoun in the objective plural. Five, in which a 
relative pronoun shall be in the nominative singular, three 
referring to a person, and two to animals or things. Five, in 
which the relative shall be in the possessive or objective case. 
Five, in which an interrogative pronoun shall be used in the 
nominative case ; five, in the possessive ; and five, in the ob- 
jective. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Seventh ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

What is observed iu the note f 



SYNTAX. — KULE VIII. 265 

"When a noun or pronoun refers to two or more antecedents 
taken toijetber, how must it aijree with them ? 

'W hen a noun or pronoun refers to two or more antecedents 
taken separately, how must it agree with them ? 

When either of the antecedents is in the plural number, in 
what case must the noun or pronoun representing them be ? 

AVhen the antecedents are of different persons, how must the 
pronoun agree with them ? 

What is said of collective nouns in the sinoralar ? 

How is the pronoun it used ? 

Wh;jt is said of interroorative pronouns ? 

Of what is our lann^uao-e destitute, and what errors are the 
consequences ? 

What is said of the pronoun when the antecedent is used 
figuratively ? 

When the pronoun has two antecedents of different persons, 
with which should it aQ:ree ? 

Where should the pronoun be placed? 

What is saiJ of the relative ? 

What is said of the use of who and which ? 

What remarked of relatives in construction ? 

When the relative is governed by a preposition, what is its 
usual position ? 

SVhat is remarked of the use of the relative that? 

Where is the preposition placed? 

Wliat is remarked of the use of who, which, and that in a 
series of clauses ? 

RULE VIII. 

§ 322. Intransitive and passive verbs take 

the same case after them, as before them, when 

12 



266 SYNTAX. — RULB VIII. 

the J refer to the same person or thing; e. g.; 
"Honesty is the best policy ;' '^I know him to 
be a good man ;" '^ Father was chosen librarian^ 

Explanation. — In this construction, the noun after the verb 
is used as the attribute of the proposition. " Honesty is the 
best policy ;" here honesty is the subject of the verb ^5, 
and policy^ meaning the same thing, is put in the same case 
after it. 

Caution.— This rule may be violated by making the cases 
before and after the verb different ; e. g., " I am him" (he). 

Remark 1. — ^Yerbs that admit the same case afler as before thein, are 
sometimes called Copulative Verbs. They are such as become^ seem^ ap- 
pear ; and the passive form of deem, style, name, call, consider, and others. 

Remark 2. — The usual position of the predicate nominative is after the 
verb. But in direct and indirect questions, and inverted sentences, it is 
frequently placed first; e. g., ''Is James a student?" "Who is he?" 
** A trainband Captain eke was he." 

Remark 3. — ^The predicate nominative may be anything that can bo 
the subject of a verb ; e. g., "John is a poei;^^ "It is /," "The opinion 
is that he will not live,^"* 

Remark 4. — ^By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the neuter 
pronoun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as predicate of 
any number, person, or gender; e. g., "It is I;" "It is she;" "It is 
they;" "It is Maria." 

Remark 5. — In an abridged proposition, the predicate nominative may 
remain unchanged, may be changed, but never dropped. 

(1.) It remains unchanged in the nominative when the subject remains 
in the nominative ; e. g., " As a youth was their leader, what could they 
do?" — "A youth being their leader, what could they do ?" Here leader is 
in the nominative, after the participle heing^ because youth is in the nomi- 
uative case. 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 267 

(2.) It remains unclianged in the nominative, relating logically (not 
grammatically) to the omitted or altered subject, when in connection with 
the inlinitive, or jjarticiple of the copula, it forms a verbal noun ; e. g., 
"That one should be a thief is strange;" — "Being a thkf,'^ or '*To be a 
thief is strange." " I was not aware that it was Ae." Here thief and he 
are in the nominative after being, or to be, because the subject, being 
either changed to the possessive or dropped, has no power over the predi- 
cate noun. 

(3.) It is changed to the objective when the subject is changed to the 
objective, or when the noun, which the omitted subject would represent, 
is in the objective ; e. g., *' I believed that it was he ;" — " I believed it to 
be him." " We found a plant ivhich is called the lilac ;^'' — " We found a 
'plant called the lilacs Here he becomes him, because it is changed to 
the objective, and lilac is in the objective, because which being dropped, 
it derives its case fcom the antecedent plant. 

Remark 6. — The form of the verb is not affected by the predicate 
nominative, but the subject ; e. g., *' Apples are fruit f^ " His food was 
vegetables,^' 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercisea 

I suppose it to be he. Whom do you suppose him to be ? 
It is them that deserve the blame, not that innocent child. 
William did not know it was him. It is not me that he is 
anirrv with. Sarah believed it to be she. It was them that 
deserve the blame. Whom do men say that I am ? It was 
not him that said it. Was it me that said so ? I understood 
it to have been he. Do you think it could have been them ? 
I am certain it was not me. I would not accept the office, if I 
were him. You would probably do the same thing if you were 
her. I undi^rstood it to be we. It is them, you said, deserve 
\nost blame. It may have been him, but there is no proof of 



268 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. — QUESTIONS. 

it. Let her be whom she, no one will molest her. She is the 
lady whom you said it was. She is the person who I under- 
stood her to be. His pavilion were the dark waters, and thick 
clouds of the sky. It was me who borrowed the knife of your 
brother, and him who carried it back. I know not whether it 
was them who managed the business so badly, but I am certain 
it was not him. Life and death is the power of the tongue. 
He thought it to be I, but it was not me. The wages of sin 
are death. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences in which the attribute ^hall be a noun 
of the singular number. Five, in which it shall be in the 
plural number. Five, in which it shall be a pronoun. Five, 
in which the attribute shall be an infinitive, or a clause of a 
sentence. Five, having the attribute before the verb. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Eight ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

What are such verbs as admit the same case after or before 
them, called ? 

Repeat the list. 

What is the usual position of the predicate nominative? 

What may the predicate nominative be ? 

What is said of the neuter pronoun it? 

AVliat is said of the predicate nominative 'n abridged propo- 
sitions ? 

What is said of the form of the verb ? 



SYNTAX. — RULE IX. 269 

RULE IX. 

§ 323. A preposition is a word used to show 
the relation between a noun or pronoun and some 
precedmg word; e. g., '^Washington was called 
the father of his country;" ''Uncle went from 
Columbia to Charleston." 

Explanation. — ^* Washington was called tlie father of his 
country ;" " Uncle went from Columbia to Charleston ;" — in 
the first sentence q/" expresses the relation between father and 
country ; in the second froTYi shows the relation between went 
and Columbia ; and to between ivent and Charleston, 

Remark 1. — The noun or pronoun following the preposition, is always 
dependent on some term, usually a preceding one, and the preposition is 
used to show that dependence. Properly speaking, the objective is not the 
object of the preposition, but of the preceding term. In the case of the 
transitive verb there are two t^rms, the verb itself and the objective, and 
the relation between them is closer, if possible, than between those in 
which the preposition is used; the objective is not called the object of that 
relation, but rather of the antecedent term, the verb. Yet custom makes 
the noun the object of the preposition. 

Remark 2. — The preceding word, or antecedent is sometimes omitted 
e. g., **In a word, he is ruined;" — '' To tell it in a word, be is ruined." 

Remark 3. — ^The noun or pronoun after the preposition is sometimes 
omitted ; e. g., " He gave assistance to {him) whoever had need of it." 

Remark 4. — The use of two prepositions before a single noun, though 
inelegant, often contributes to perspicuity and brevity, and has the sanc- 
t\ox\ of many good writers ; e. g., " Men's passions and interests mix 
w^th^ and are expressed in, the decisions of the intellect." 

Remark 5. — Two or more words are often used together as a com- 
f'Cun;l preposition ;• e. g., " Prom between the arcades the eye glances up 
a :i \:'x of blue sky, or a passing cloud." 



270 



SYIJTTAX. — RULE IX. 



Remark 6. — ^Tlie preposition in general precedes its relational word. 
In poetry and interrogative seutences it is often separated; e. g., "Wild 
Carron's lonely wood among ^ " Whom did he speak to ?" 

Remark 7. — Care should be taken to employ such prepositions as 
clearly express the relation intended. The following list may be founfl 
useful for reference : 



Abhorrence of. 

Abound m, with. 

Abridge from. 

Absent from. 

Access to. 

Accommodate to* 

Accord luith. 

Accuse of 

Acquaint with. 

Acquit of 

Acquiesce in. 

Adapted to. 

Adequate to. 

Adhere to. 

Adjudge to. 

Admonish of 

Address to. 

Admission (access) to. 

Admission (entrance) into. 

Advantage over^ of. 

Affinity to^ with. 

Affection for. 

Agree with a person ; to a proposi- 
tion, from another ; upon a thing 
among themselves. 

Agreeable to. 

^lude to. 

Alter to^ alteration iii. 

Amerce in. 

Annex to. 



Analogy to^ with. 

Antipathy to^ against. 

Approve of 

Array wiih^ in. 

Arrive at. 

Ascendant ove7'. 

Ask of a person ; for a thing ; aftef 

what we wish to hear o£ 
Aspire tOj after. 
Associate with, seldom to. 
Assent to. 
Assure of. 
Attain to. 
Averse to, from. 
Banish /row, to. 
Believe in, sometimes on. 
Bereft of 
Bestow upoTij on. 
Betray to a person ; into a thing. 
Boast of 
Bind iOy in. 
Blush at 
Border upon, on. 
Call on a person ; at a place. 
Capacity for. 
Careful of in. 
Catch at. 
Change (exchange) for ,- (alter) to, 

into. 
Charge on a person ; with a thing. 



SYNTAX. — RULE IX. 



271 



Compare with^ in respect of quality ; 

to^ by way of illustratioo. 
Comply, complianc3 with. 
Composed of. 
Concede to. 
Concur with a person ; in a measure ; 

to an efiect. 
Condescend to. 
Confer otz, upon. 
Confide in. 

Conformable, conformity to^ with. 
Congenial to. 
Congratulate upon^ on. 
Consonant to. 
Consist (to be composed) q/j (to be 

comprised) in. 
Consistent with. 
Contrast with. 
Conversant with men; in things; about 

and among are less proper. 
Convict of a crime ; in a penalty. 
Copy after a person ; from a thing. 
Correspond (to be consistent) with ; 

(answering or suitable) to. 
Correspondence with. 
Cured of. 
Debar from. 
Defend (others) from; — (ourselves) 

against. 
Demand of. 

Denounce against a person. 
Depend, dependent upon^ on. 
Deprive of. 

Derogate from, derogatory to. 
Derogation /rom, of. 
Despair of. 
despoil of. 



Devolve on. 

Die, perish of a disease ; 5y an in 

strument, or violence ; for another. 
Differ, different ^otti. 
Difficulty in. 

Diminish /rom, diminution of. 
Disabled from. 

Disagree with a person ; to a proposal* 
Disagreeable to. 
Disappointed of what we do not get ; 

in wliat does not answer when got 
Disapprove of. 

Discourage /rom ; discouragement to. 
Disgusted at^ with. 
Dispose of; disposed (adj.) to. 
Dispossess of. 
Disqualify for. 
Dissent from. 
Distinct from. 
Divested of. 

Divide between two, am/)ng more. 
Eager in, on, of for, after. 
Embark in. 
Employ in, on, about. 
Enamored with. 
Encroach upon, on. 
Endeavor after a thing. 
Engage in a work ; for a time. 
Enjoin upon. 
Entrance into. 
Equal to, with. 
Equivalent to. 
Espouse to. 
Estimated at 
Exception /ro777, to. 
Exclude, exclusion fronu 
Exclusive of. 



2i2 



SYNTAX. — RULE IX. 



Expelled from. 

Expert at (before a noun) ; in (be- 
fore an active participle). 

Fall under disgrace ; from a tree ; 
into a pit; to work; upon an enemy. 

Familiar to, with ; a thing is familiar 
to us — we luith it. 

Fawn upon, on. 

Followed by. 

Fond of. 

Foreign to, sometimes /rom. 

Founded z/.pon, on^ in. 

Free from.. 

Fruitful in. 

Full of 

Glad of something gained by our- 
selves ; at something that befalls 
another. 

G rateful to a person ; for favors. 

Hanker after. 

Hinder /om. 

Hold of; as, " Take hold of me." 

Impose upon. 

Incorporate (active transitive) into ; 
(intransitive or passive) with. 

Inculcate on. 

Independent of. 

Indulge with a thing not habitual ; 
ia a thing habitual. 

Indulgent to. 

Influence on, over, with. 

Inform of about, concerning. 

Initiate into a place ; m an art. 

Inquire. — (See ask.) 

Inroad into. 

I''Repai"able from. 

Insinuate into. 



Insist upon. 
Instruct in. 
Inspection (prying) into; (superin. 

tendenco) over. 
Intent upon, on. 
Interfere with. 
Intervene between. 
Introduce into a place ; to a person. 
Intrude into a place enclosed ; upon 

a person, or a thing not enclosed. 
Inured to. 
Invested with^ in. 
Lame of 
Level with. 
Long for, after. 
Look on what is present; for what 

is absent ; after what is distant. 
Made of. 
Made much of. 
Marry to. 
Martyr for. 
Militate againsu. 
Mistrustful of. 
Need of. 
Obedient to. 
Object to, against. 
Observance, observation of. 
Obtrude upon, on. 
Occasion for. 
Offensive to. 
Operate upon^ on. 
Opposite, opposition to. 
Partake of; participate of, in. 
Penetrate into. 
Persevere in. 
Pitch upon. 
Pour in. 



SYNTAX. — EULE IX. 



273 



Prefer iOj over, above. 

Preference to, over. 

Preferable io. 

Prefix io. 

Prejudice against. 

Preside over. 

Prevent from. 

Pi evail (to persuade) with, on, upoUj 

(to overcome) over, against. 
Prey on, upon. 
Productive of. 
Profit by. 
Protect others from / ourselves 

against. 
Pronounce against a person; on a 

thing. 
Provide with, for. 
Proud of 
Purge of, away. 
Quarrel with. 
Reckon on, upon. 
Reconcile (to friendship) to ; (to make 

consistent) with. 
Reduce (subdue) under ; (in other 

cases) to. 
Reflect upon^ on. 
Regard for ; in regard io. 
Rely upon, on. 
Replete with. 
Reproached for. 
Resemblance to. 
Resolve on. 

Respect to; in respect to, of 
Restore to. 



Rich %7L 

Rob of 

Rule over. 

Share in, of. 

Sick of. 

Significant of 

Similar to. 

Sink Into, beneath. 

Skilful (before a noun) in ; (before a 

participle) at^ in. 
Strain out. 
Strip of 
Submit to. 
Sent to. 
Swerve from. 
Taste of means actual enjoyment ; — > 

taste for, means capacity or genius 

for. 
Tax ivith (for example, a crime, an 

act) ; for (a purpose, the state). 
Thankful /or. 
Think of, on. 
Touch at. 
Unite (transitive) to, (intransitive) 

with. 
Unison with, to. 
Useful for. 
Value upon, on. 

Vest, before the possessor, in; be- 
fore the thing possessed, with. 
"Wait upon^ on. 
Witness of. 
"Worthy, unworthy of But after 

those, of is generally omitted. 



Remark 8. — Inl^ is used only after verbs of motion, and implies evr 
irance. In is used after verbs of motion or rest, and denotes situation, 

12-* 



274 SYNTAX.— EXERCISES. 

but never entrance ; e. g., " Father went into the omnibus, and rode in 
it to the boat." 

Eemark 9. — The preposition should be placed as near as possible to its 
rc'lalional word. A wrong position oftea produces nonsense j e. g., " The 
man was digging a v/ell, with a Roman nose." 

Remark 10. — The terms of relation, between which a preposition may 
bo used, are various. The former or antecedent term may be a noun, an 
adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or even an adverb. In some 
instances we find not only one preposition put before another, but even a 
conjunction, or an exclamation used on this side; e. g '''' Btcause of of- 
fences ;" " Alas for him 1" 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences, in the following exercises. 

I must beg to differ with you in relation to the opinion just 
expressed. Many of our most valuable citizens died by the yellow 
fever last year. It is stated that Socrates came to his death with 
poison. It must not be, such conduct is derogatory from his 
cliaracter. His party was made up from such men. There is 
necessity of prompt action. Did you say there was no need 
on it ? He will not comply to my condition. Milton may be 
compared in Homer. Do you reside in the Saratoga Springs ? 
We touched in Charleston on our way for Cuba. Thomas has 
gone for Boston with his uncle, and proposes to remain with 
him during the vacation. Every change is not to the better, 
we have learned from experience. father ! did you know 
that the bucket had fallen under the well ? Go and be recon- 
ciled with your brother. I do not want him as I have no 
00 *asion of his services. Have you a friend to whom you may 
confide? William finds great difficulty of writing. You may 
rely in the truth of what he says. Come in the house. Your 
remark is founded with truth. 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 275 

Can you accommodate me to a small loan for a short time ? 
They divided the fruit between themselves, lie was eager of 
recommending him to his fellow^-citizens. Changed for a worse 
shape it cannot be. Favors are not always bestowed to the 
most deservinor. It is hard to reconcile such conduct to vour 
profession. A man had four sons, and he divided his property 
between them. John and James intend to favor us in theii 
company. In the name of drugs and plants, the mistake in a 
word may endanger life. And the apostles and elders came 
toorether for to consider on this matter. Such a verb cannot 
admit of an objective case after it. Some of these situations 
are termed cases, and are expressed by additions to the noun 
instead of by separate words. How short are my expressioi^s 
of its excellency ! Let us endeavor to establish to ourselves an 
interest in him who holds the reins of creation. Their efforts 
seemed to anticipate on the spirit, which became so general 
afterwards. I was prevented reading a letter which would have 
undeceived me. 

We hear it stated that he was dependent of his father for 
the means of subsistence. Such examples must be folloAved 
with appropriate prepositions. Virtue and vice differ widely 
w^ith each other. Neither Robert nor James profit from ex- 
perience. Those children have a great resemblance with each 
other. Our senator was eager of recommending the measui-e. 
He has a capacity of enjoyment. We have no occasion of his 
ser\nces. I think you have bestow^ed them to the most deserv- 
ing that could be found in that purpose. William accused 
Mason for having attempted to injure him in the estimation uf 
one that he regarded. The boys quarreled among each other 
as they w^ent from school. You have strong prejudices to my 
cause. Maria's sobriety is no derogation to her understanding. 
Stj\nge to tell ! he died for thirst. William and Robert have 



276 SYNTAX. — RULE X. 

lust read a tale founded on facts. Need I tell you, your fathei 4 
has the greatest abhorrence to such company ? 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

"Write five sentences containing an example of the preposi- 
tion and its object limiting a noun. Five, in which the adjunct 
shall limit a verb. Five, in which it shall limit an adjective. 
Five, in which it shall limit an adverb. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Ninth ? 
Explain it. 

Give the substance of Remark First. 
What is said of the antecedent ? 

What is said of the noun or pronoun after a preposition ? 
"What is said of the use of two prepositions before a single 
noun ? 

How are two or more words often used ? 

What is observed of the' position of the preposition ? 

What is observed in Remark Seventh ? 

What is observed of into ? in ? 

Where should the preposition be placed ? 
What is said of the terms of relationship ? 

RULE X. 

§ 324. A noun or pronoun used to complete 
the relation of a preposition must be in the object- 
ive case; e.g., "Washington was called the father 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 277 

of his country;' ^^ Uncle went from Columhia to 
Charleston y 

Explanation. — " Wasliino-ton was called the father of his 
country ;" " Uncle went from Columbia to Charleston ;" — in 
the first example country completes the relation expressed by 
the preposition of ; in the second, Columhia completes the 
relation expressed by from^ and Charleston that expressed 
by to. 

Caution. — This rule is violated by putting the noun or pro 
roun completing the relation of the preposition in any other 
case than the objective. 

Remark 1. — A preposition may be followed by a noun, pronoun, par" 
ticipial noun, phrase or a dependent clause; e. g., "For Robert f "On 
rece^■2;^7^^ his diploma;" " Much depends on his advices ;^'' "Much will de- 
pend on who the commissioners are." 

Remark 2. — The preposition about is sometimes followed by an infini- 
tive mood; e. g., " He is about to go^ 

Remark 3. — For is sometimes placed before the infinitive with its sub- 
ject in the objective; e. g., "This is a dangerous opinion for men to 
entertain." 

Remark 4. — The phrases in vain^ in secret^ at firsts at last^ in short, on 
high, &c., &c., may be parsed together as adverbs, or the noun suppUed ; 
e. g., "In a vain manner." 

Remark 5. — Home, and nouns signifvnng time, space, measure, and 
some others, are put in the objective without a preposition ; e. g., " Alfred 
has gone home ;" " Robert was absent three days ;" " "William rode ten 
miles after dark;" "My cane is three feet long^ 

EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

Who did you say the boys obtained this unpleasant intelli- 
gence from ? In that day when the judge of all the earth will 



278 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

bring every action into requisition, it will be found that every 
man must account for hisself. William went with John and I 
to the museum last evening. Who did you speak to ? Never 
turn away from, or refuse to assist he that is needy. The 
teacher was speaking to she, when we entered the room. To 
who did you lend your knife ? James Hampton traveled with 
you and I last season to Saratoga. It was not he they were so 
ano-ry with but his brother. Who does he offer such lano-uaore 
to ? Does that boy know who he speaks to ? I hope it is 
not I he is displeased w^ith. It was not he that told me, but 
his brother. The young lady you saw with she at the concert 
took the first honor at the Judson, at the last annual examina- 
tion. The facts in regard to the transaction was told to he in 
such a manner as to excite his prejudice against the compan3^ 
It is distinctly understood that after this, between you and I 
there is to be no concealment. I am certain that it was said 
by somebody, but I know not who. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences in which of or any other preposition 
with a noun, shall describe a noun Write sentences in which 
m, at^ during^ since, about, after, before, between, by, from, to, 
and toward, with a noun, shall denote the time of an action, or 
answer the question When ? How long ? or Hoiv often .^ 
Write sentences in which aboard, about, above, across, against, 
along, amidst, among, around, at, before, behind, beloiv, beneath, 
beside, between, begond, by, down, from, in^ into, on, out, over, 
round, through, to, toward, under, underneath, up, upon, with 
a noun shall denote the place of an action, or answer to the 
question Where? Write sentences in viXuoh from, for, by, out 
of with a noun shall denote the cause^ source^ or origin of an 



BTXTAX. QUESTIONS. — RULE XI. 279 

act, answering to the question JVhj/ ? On ichat account ? or 
From what source ? Write sentences in which luith^ without, 
in, on, bi/j loithin, with a noun shall show the manner of an 
action, or answer the question How ? 



QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Tenth ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

By what may the preposition be followed ? 

What is said of the preposition about? 

What is said of for ? 

What is said of the phrases in vain, &c., (fee. ? 

What is said of home, &c., &c. ? 



RULE XI. 

§ 325. A noun or pronoun having no gram- 
matical relation to the sentence in which it stands, 
is put in the nominative independent ; e. g., 
''Father^ William has comej" ''The sun helng 
ariseuy we departed." 

Explanation. — In the examples, ** Father, William has 

come ;" and "The sun being arisen, we departed ;" — the word 

"/a^/ier," and the participial phrase " the sun heinrj ariscn^^ 

are entirely disconnected with the other words of the sentence; 

"^ they are in the nominative independent. 

Caution. — In the use of the participial phrase, this rule may 



280 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

be violated by using the objective case for tbe nominative ; 
e. g., "Him only excepted" (he). 

Remark 1. — Five cases occur in which a noun or pronoun may be in- 
dependent or absolute. It may be so : 

(1.) In direct address; e. g., ^^ Father, "William has come." 
(2.) In participial phrases ; e. g., " The sun being arisen, we departed." 
(3.) By pleonasm, when it is presented to the attention, and abruptly 
left; e. g., '*Oar fathers, where are they?" 

(4.) When, in an abridged proposition, it follows the infinitive or parti- 
ciple of the copula, and is uncontrolled by a preceding noun ; e. g., *' I 
was not aware of his being a judge;'''' " To be a judge requires a correct 
knowledge of law." 

(5.) In exclamations ; e.g., ''01 the times I" 

Remark 2. — In participial phrases the noun is often omitted ; e. g., 
" It is true, generally speaking" (we speaking). 

Remark 3. — Sometimes being and having been are omitted ; e. g., " Her 
wheel (being) at rest;" "This {being) said;" "He {having been) de- 
stroyed." 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

Ilim being discovered, they fled as if the whole army had 
been pursued. Him that formed the eye can he not see ? and 
him 'that formed the ear, can he not hear? Oh happy us! 
who are thus blessed. Us having returned, they rejoiced. 
" Thee too ! Brutus, my son," cried Caesar overcome. They 
refusing to comply with so reasonable request, I withdrew with- 
out hesitation. Whose gray top shall tremble, him descending. 
Me being present, the company seemed much embarrassed. 
Ilim bjing detected the assassin escaped. Are you sure of its 
being she? The class recited well, him excepted. They knew 
of its being me. Her being dismissed, no difficulty was found 



SYNTAX. — RULE XII. 281 

in controlling even the most refractory. 1 am now snre of its 
being him. Whom being dead, it was deemed expedient to 
love. Its being me made a difference in their decision. Me 
being absent, as might be expected, nothing was done. The 
general slain, the army w^as easily routed. He made as wise 
proverbs as anybody, him excepted. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

\Vrite five sentences containing an example of the nomina- 
tive independent by direct address. Five, having the subordi 
Date clause abridged. Five, containing an example of pleon- 
asm. Five, following the infinitive, or participle of the copula. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Eleventh ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

When is the nominative case used without a verb ? 

W^hat is said of the noun in participial phrases? 

What is said of heing^ and having been ? 

RULE XII. 

§ 326. The infinitive mood is used to limit a 
verb, noun, or adjective ; e. g., " Strive to im- 
prove;" ^^ He was in hade to retire;" "The boat 
is ready to go." 

Explanation. — The infinitive may be regarded in general 
«s a verbal noun bavins: the construction of both a noun and a 



282 SYNTAX. — RULE XIL 

verb. When in immediate dependence on a verb, it is related 
to it either as its subject or object. After nouns, adjectives, 
and other parts of speech, it commonly represents the state or 
action denoted by the verb, as the object, end, or design, of 
the attribute or fact expressed by the preceding word. 

Caution. — Be particular not to use the wrong tense ; e. g., 
" I intended to have written^'' {to write). 

Remark 1. — The infinitive may be the subject of a verb ; e. g., *' To 

play is pleasant ;" " To study is profitable." 

Remark 2. — The infinitive is ofiien used as the object of a verb ; e. g., 
"Boys love to play ;^^ " The children seem to be pleased.^^ 

Remark 3. — The infinitive is often used as the predicate nominative 
after a copulative verb; e. g., "Miss Pamelia is to be married next 
week." 

Remark 4. — The infinitive is sometimes put in apposition with another 
noun ; e. g., " Spare, spare your friends the task, to read, to nod, to scoffs 
to condemn.''^ 

Remark 5. — The infinitive is sometimes used to complete the relation 
of a proposition ; e. g., " After all Henry is about f/) learny 

Remark 6. — The infinitive is sometimes used independently; e, g., 
" To confe^<s the truth, I was in fault." 

Remark 7.— -The infinitive is sometimes used after so as, too, or ihaUf 
to denote a result ; o. g., " The difficulty was so great as to deter him 
from the undertaking ;" "James is not too old to learn;" "He is wiser 
than to undertake it." 

Reiiark 8. — The sign to is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, need, make, 
see, hear, feel, let, and some others; e. g., "I saw him do it;" "They let 
him <70." 

Remark 9. — The infinitive may have a subject in the objective ; e. g., 
"They ordered Jiim to leave." 

(1.) The infinitive of the copula may have a predicate objective; e. g., 
" I know him to be a scholar." 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 283 

(2.) The infinitive with its subject may be the subject of a proposition ; 
in such cases the phrase must be introduced by for ; e. g., " For you to 
deceive is ciiuiiual ;" ^'' For him to be a scholar is impossible." 

(3.) The iulinitive and its subject may be the obj(*ct of a transitive verb, 
or of the preposition for; e. g., '* Order my horse to be caught;" "They 
considered him (to be) a traitor ;" " They ordered some water for the boy 
10 drink.^^ 

Remark 10. — The infinitive is sometimes omitted; e. g., **I consider 
him {to be) an honest man;" "He was thought {to be) upright." 

Remark 11. — The infinitive present expresses what is now going on 
or to come, to the time of its hmiting word ; the perfect infinitive ex- 
presses what is prior to it; e. g., "He compels me to praise him ;" "Fa 
supposed me to have praised him." 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me, as he narrated 
the many clangers through which he had passed. You will 
please excuse my son's absence from recitation this morning, 
as he was much engaged last evening. Bid the boys to come 
in immediately. Permit Henry pass this way. Let no rash 
promises be made. It is well to allow others discover your 
merit. Did you see it to move ? A good reader will make 
himself to be heard distinctly. Alfred dare not return home 
without permission. I rejoice her the news. William need 
not conceal himself. We expected to have seen a different 
result. You ought not walk so fast. Robert is better this 
morning than I expected to have found him. Rufus need not 
to run so fast. An industrious pupil seldom fails to know his 
lesson. Let me die the death of the righteous. I was once 
inclined to have gone with you ; it is too late now to think of 
\t. Have you heard William to mention it ? Instruct him 



284 SYNTAX.— QUESTIONS. 

carefully, observe these things. They wished him to be their 

kil]cr. 

It is better to be a Idiig and die than live a prince. He 
scorns either to temporize, or deceive, or be guilty of evasion. 
I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very 
discreetly. Your teacher bid you to go home without delay. 
You need not to be so serious. Let no man to think too 
highly of himself. They were seen pass the house late in the 
evening. Yesterday I hoped to have met you. The books 
were to have been sold to-day. Was he seen to enter the 
house ? It would have been no difficult matter to have com- 
piled a volume of such amusing precedents. Need they to run 
so fast ? Robert and James would have found it difficult to 
have accomplished their purpose. Ought we to excuse the 
remissness of those whose business it should have been to have 
interposed their good offices? I am of the opinion that we 
have done no more than was our duty to have done. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of an infinitive 
used as the subject of a verb. Five, as the object. Five, as 
predicate nominative. Five, containing an infinitive in apposi- 
tion with a noun. Five, as the object of relation. Five, used 
independently. Five, following so as^ too, or than. Five, 
omitting the sign to after certain verbs. Five, having a subject 
in the objective. Five, containing an ellipsis. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Twelfth ? 
Explain it. 



SYNTAX. — RULE XIU, 285 

Repeat the caution. 

What is said of the use of the infinitive in Remark 1 ? 

Remark 2 ? Remark 3 ? Remark 4 ? 

Remark 5 ? 



How is the infinitive sometimes used ? 

When the infinitive has a subject before it, in what case 
must it be ? 

What is said of the sio;n to ? 

What does the infinitive present express ? 

perfect ? 

RULE XIII. 

§ 327. Adverbs modify verbs^ adjectives, and 
sometimes other adverbs; e. g., ^^ James studies 
diligently^ and is ^^ery attentive pupil." 

Explanation. — "James studies dih'gently, and is a very 
attentive pupil ;" — in this example diligently modifies studies, 
and very^ attentive. This rule means that when a verb, ad- 
jective, or adverb is to be modified, then an adverb must be 

used. 

Caution. — Avoid the use of adjectives in place of adverbs; 

e. g., "James writes neatly^'' not neat, 

Re^iark 1. — An adverb is sometimes used to modify a preposition; 
e. g., '' Columbus sailed nearly around the world." 

Remark 2. — Adverbs should be placed as near to the- words which they 
modify, as they can be without producing harshness. 

Note. — Such adverbs as only^ merely, chiefly^ &c., are frequently mis- 
placed; e. g, "I o?2/y saw Robert, not Thomas;" " I saw only John, but 
did not speak to Him." The first sentence should be, " I saw only Rob- 



286 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

ert," or, "I saw Robert only f^ the second should be, "I ovly saw 
John. ' 

Remark 3. — An adverb is frequently used to modify a phrase or a sen- 
tence ; e. g., " The final debate on the resolution was postponed nearly a 
month;'*'* "Verily, verily, I say unto you, they have their reward." 

Remark 4. — No never qualifies a verb ; hence when there is an ellipsis 
of the verb, no is sometimes used for not; e. g., " "Will you walk or noV 
{not). 

Remark 5. — The adverbs where and when are ofi;en incorrectly used in- 
stead of the relative and its adjuncts ; e. g., " The situation where {in 
which) I found James was truly dangerous;" "Since when {which time) I 
have not seen him." 

Remark 6. — The adverbs nay^ no, yea, yes, often stand alone as a nega- 
tive or affirmative answer to a question ; e. g., " Will he go ?" — " iV(;."== 
" He will not go." 

Remark 7. — Two negatives should not be used to express a negation, 
because they destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative ; e. g., 
** Nor did Robert and James not deserve punishment." This is equivalent 
to saying that they did. 

Remark 8. — Two negatives are sometimes elegantly employed to 
express an affirmation ; e. g., " You are not unacquainted with my 
brother." 

Remark 9. — Conjunctive adverbs usually modify two words, and at the 
same time join the adverbial clause to the word on which it depends ; e. g., 
"We shall be present when the boat arrives" = "We shall be present at 
the time at, or in which, the boat arrives." Here, when modifies present, 
instead of at the time, and arrives instead of in which. It also connects 
" the boat arrives" with present. 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

The boat moves very rapid down the stream. William 
acted noble, tlioiigli he was unsuccessful. So well-educated a 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 287 

boy gives gi'cat hopes to his friends. He unaffectedly and 
forcibly spoke on the subject. You must not let no one dis- 
turb nie. Your son is like to become a useful member of 
society. The little girls have behaved very good to day. He 
reasoned the point very clear and interesting. Few could be 
nobler than your brother. Life glides away almost impci'cep- 
tible and slow. Has your brother been illy a long time? The 
king acted bolder than the duke. To profess regard and act 
different discovers a base mind. It is impossible continually to 
be at work. The class is entire exonerated from blame. She 
besought him to aid her earnestly. Martha has not done but 
one sum. Robert don't know nothing about it. Shall we 
visit Caesar's Head or no? Matilda plays remarkable well. 
You need not tell me no such stories. John writes very pretty. 
James was pleasing not often, because he was vain, Edv/ard 
rode to town and drove a cow on horseback. Dear me I I can 
not see to work no more. 

I cannot see to write no more. My foot slipped and I 
pretty near fell down. Our senator spoke very eloquent on 
the subject before the house. Maria read the book only, but 
she did not keep it. He is resolved not to do so, neither at 
present, nor any other time. Wanted, a young man to take 
charofe of some horses of a reli^cious turji of mind. We always 
should prefer our duty to our pleasure. At that time I wished 
that any body would hang me a hundred times. In the proper 
discussion of adverbs, the sound carefully requires to be con- 
sulted as well as the sense. Jane reads only English, and not 
French. Robert will never be no taller. Not only he found 
her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. The women con- 
tributed all their rings and jewxds voluntarily, to assist the 
government. Scholars should be taught to carefully scrutinize 
the sentiments advanced in all the books they read. I pro- 



288 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES.— QUESTIONS. 

moting the public good, we only discharge our duty. He 
drew up a petition, where he represented his own merit. 
Be so kind as to tell me whether he will do it or no. The 
pnpils seemed to be nearly dressed alike. She writes toler- 
able well, but reads miserable. Having not known, or hav- 
ing not considered, the measures proposed, he failed of suc- 
cess. 



EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences containing an example of a verb, ad- 
jective, or adverb limited by an adverb of time. Five, of 
place. Five, of manner. Five, of negation. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Thirteenth ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

Do adverbs ever modify prepositions ? 

What is said of such adverbs as only^ &c. ? 

What is said of phrases and sentences ? 

What is said of no ? 

How are when and where often used ? 

What is said of the adverbs nay, &c. ? 

AVhat is said of negatives in a ne2:ation ? 

What is said of two negatives in an affirmation 

What is said of conjunctive adverbs 3 



SYNTAX.— -RULE XIV. 289 

RULE XIV. 

§ 328. Conjunctions connect words and propo- 
sitions; e. g., ^SSusan and Mary know that they 
have disobeyed." 

Explanation. — " Susan and Mary know that they have dis- 
obeyed;" — in this sentence and connects the words Susan 
and Mary; nnd that^ tlie propositions '^ Susan and Mary 
know J'' and " they have disobeyed T 

Caution. — Never use as for that ; e. g., " Not as I know" 
(that). 

Remark 1. — The conjunction is sometimes omitted; e. g., "Mary 
thinks (that) her brother will be here soon." 

Remars 2. — After than, as, though, and if, there is often an ellipsis; 
e. g., " My brother loves money more than (he loves) books." 

Remark 3. — As is frequently used to connect a word with another de- 
noting character, office, &c., &c. ; e. g., " William was employtd as a 
clerk." The word clerk, here, is explained by some as a sort of apposi- 
tion. Such constructions should be regarded as elliptical; e. g., *"Yriliiam 
was employed as a clerk" (is employed). 

Rfm. RK 4. — After than the objective case of the relative pronoun is 
used, even when any other word would be in the nominative ; e. g., 
**Sat:m, t'.ian whom, Boelzebub excepted, none higher sat." — Milion. This 
IS an an )inaly, which some explain by supposing that than was formerly 
iLS:d ns a preposition. 

RE3IARK 5. — Words and clauses are often connected by two conjunc- 
tions, or a conjunction and an adverb, corresponding to eacli other : as, 

Neither. nor ; e. g.. " Henry is neither idle nor lazy," 

Either, or; e. g., " Eitlier you or Thomas must go." 

Whether, or; e. g., "Whether ho will go or not," &c. 

Though, yet; e. g^ "Though he was rich, yet for," &c. 

13 



290 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

If, then ; e. g., " If he speaks true, then you speak," &c. 

Both, and ; e. g., " I am debtor, both to you and your brother." 

Not only, but also ; e. g., '* Not only his time, but also his charac- 
ter, was at stake." 

f as; e. g., "My fame is as good as yours." 

* ( so; e. g., "As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

f as; e. g., " He is not so wise as his brother." 

' ( that ; e. g., " I am so weak that I cannot walk." 

Remark 6. — The common rule, given by grammarians in general, that 
conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense only^ is not sane 
tioned by usage; e. g., "John is diligent, and will improve rapidly;' 
" I know that he is wrong, and can prove it ;" " He was skillful in many 
languages, and had^ by reading and composition, attained the full mastery 
of his own." 

" Exhausted woe had left him nought to fear, 
But gave him all to grief." — Young. 

Remark T. — What should never be used for thai; e. g., "I will not 
believe but what he is to blame," should be, " but that he is to blame." 

Remark 8. — ^After expressions denoting doubt, fear, and denial, bu'.^ 
tut that J or lesiy is often improperly used instead of that; e. g., " I am 
afraid lest he may not return." 

Remark 9. — After the comparative degree, and after other and else^ 
which partake of the nature of the comparative, than is used to introduce 
the latter term of comparison; e. g., "He is greater than I;" "It is no 
other than he;" " What else do you expect than this ?" 

Remark 10. — That often serves merely to introduce a clause, as the 
subject of the verb ; e. g., " That mind is not matter, is certain." 



EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises. 

I am debtor both to you or your brother for many favors 
during the past season. Either Mary nor her sister shall spend 
the vacation with you. Provisions are so dear, so as to place 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 291 

tlieni almost beyond the reach of the poor laborer. He does 
not know but what vou are the man he is lookino* for. As we 
witnessed the consecration of so" many to the cause of truth, 
we were led to exclaim, this is no other but the house of God. 
Your fiither cannot be persuaded but what you are to blame. 
Not only his time, yet also his character was at stake. John 
was employed for a clerk to attend to the business until spring. 
I do not doubt but that the man was honest in his intentions. 
He could not be persuaded but what the invention might prov^ 
useful, and the investment profitable. The invalid is so weak 
as he cannot walk. Riches can make no one so happy than a 
clear conscience. See if the carriao-e is at the door. It cannot 
be denied but he has acted honorably. 

Did Pamelia say as she would join the party to visit the 
cave ? I was surprised to learn that Henry could neither read 
nor write. Alfred has little more of the scholar besides the 
name. Neither riches and honors can satisfy the desires of an 
immortal spirit. There was something so amiable, and yet so 
piercing in his look, that affected me at once with love and 
terror. The dog in the manger would not eat the hay himself, 
nor suffer the ox to eat it. Be ready to succor such persons 
who need your assistance and sympathy. The matter was no 
sooner proposed, but he privately withdrew to consider it. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Write five sentences in which wlio^ which^ or that shall join 
the dependent clause to the subject. Five, in which that^ 
whether^ when^ where, why, how, which, what, introduce the 
substantive clause used as a subject. Five, in which they are 
used as the object of a transitive verb. Write sentences intro- 
ducing the corresponding conjunctions. 



292 SYNTAX.— QUESTIONS.— RULE XT. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Fourteenth ? 

Explain it. 

Repeat the caution. 

What is said of than^ as, though, and if? 

Are conjunctions ever omitted ? 

With what is as frequently connected ? 

Are such words in apposition ? 

How should they be regarded ? 

What is a corresponding conjunction ? 

What is said of the common rule given by some gramma- 
rians in regard to conjunctions ? 

W^hat is said of hut, but that, or lest after expressions of 
doubt, fear, and denial? 

What is said of than after the comparative degree, and after 
other and else partaking the nature of the comparative ? 

What is said of that ? 

RULE XV. 

§ 329. Exclamations have no grammatical re- 
lation to other words ; e. g., " 0^ haste my father's 
heart to cheer !" 

Remark 1. — No rule can be given for the use of this class of words. 
Commonly they occur at the beginning of the sentence ; e. g , "0, that 
those lips had language 1" " Hark I what noise is that ?" 

Remark 2. — should be used only before words in direct address, or 
to express a wish ; e. g., "Henry, where is your brother to-day?" **0, 
make my grave where the sunbeams rest." 

0?i should be us^ed when you wisli to express pain, sorrow, or surprise; 
e. g., "Oh 1 I have alienated my friend." 



SYNTAX. QUESTIONS. — EXERCISES. 293 

Remark 3. — An ellipsis frequently occurs after exclamations ; e. g., 
•'*0I a chair" (give me). 

R Kir ARK 4. — Ah is sometimes placed before the objective case of the 
pronoun of the first person ; e. g., " Ah 1 me." 

There is no necessity for a special rule for the government of me in this 
case. Supply the ellipsis, and it is easily disposed of; — " Ah I (pity) me.*' 



QUESTIONS. 

What is Rule Fifteenth ? 

What is observed in regard to this class of words? 

What is said of the use of 0? 

What is said of Oh ? 

What is said of Ah ? 

How will you dispose of the objective after it? 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN 
FALSE SYNTAX. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the sentences in the following exercises, ac- 
.jording to the directions given in the preceding rules. 

Thouo^h crreat has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if 
he sincerely acknowledo'es his misconduct, he will be forjxiven. 
On these causes depend all the happiness or misery, which 
exists among men. The property of James, I mean his books 
and furniture, were wholly destroyed. This prodigy of learn- 
ing, this scholar, critic, and antiquarian, were entirely destitute 
of breeding and civility. That writer has given an account of 
the manner, in w^hich Christianity has formerly been propa- 
gated among the heathens. W^e adore the Divine Being, he 
v;ho is from eternity to eternity. Thou, Lord, who hath per- 
mitted affliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in 



294 SYKTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

due time. In this place, tliere were not only security, but an 
abundance of provisions. By these attainments are the master 
honored, and the scholars encouraged. The sea appeared to 
be more than usually agitated. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, under- 
stand the nature of the religion they reject. Virtue and mu- 
tual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are 
wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences. Time 
anl chance happeneth to all men; but every person do not 
consider who govern those powerful causes. The active mind 
of man never or seldom rests satisfied with their present condi- 
tion, howsoever prosperous. Habits must be acquired of tem- 
perance and of self-denial, that we may be able to resist pleas- 
ure, and to endure pain, when either of them interfere with 
our duty. The error of resting wholly on faith or on works is 
one of those seductions which most easily misleads men ; un- 
der the semblance of piety, on the one hand, and of virtue on 
the other hand. It was no exaggerated tale : for she was 
really in that sad condition that her friend represented her. 
An nnnj present a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own 
hearts. Thou art the Messiah, the Son of God, who was to 
come into the world, and hast been so long promised and 
desired. Thomas disposition is better than his brothers; and 
he appears to be the happiest man : but some degree of trouble 
is all m .-ns portion. Though remorse sleep sometimes during 
prosperity, it will awake surely in adversity. It is an invariable 
law to our present condition, that every pleasure that are pur- 
sued to excess, convert themselves into poison. If a man 
brings into the solitary retreat of age, a vacant and unimproved 
mind, where no knowledge dawns, no ideas rise, which within 
itself has nothing to feed upon, many a heavy and many a 



SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 295 

comfortless day he mnst necessarily pass. I cannot yield to 
such dishonorable conduct, neither at the present moment of 
difficulty, nor, I trust, under no circuuislance whatever. 

Themistocles concealed the enterprises of Paiisanias, either 
thinking it base to betray the secrets trusted to his confidence, 
or imagined it impossible for such dangerous and ill-concerted 
schemes to take elFect. Pericles gained such an ascendant 
over the minds of the Athenians, that he might be said to at- 
tain a monarchical power in Athens. Christ did applaud the 
liberality of the poor widow, who he had seen casting her two 
mites in the treasury. A multiplicity of little kind offices, in 
persons frequently conversant with each other, is the bands of 
society and of friendship. To do good to them that hate us, 
and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a Christian. 
If a man profess a regard for the duties of religion, and neglect 
that of morality, that man's religion is vain. Affluence might 
give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recom- 
mend us to the wise and good. The polite, accomplished 
libertine is but miserable amidst all his pleasures ; the rude 
inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. The cheerful and 
the gay, when w^ armed by pleasure and by mirth, lose both 
sobriety and that self denial which is essential to the support 
of virtue. 

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them, as well 
^d manv thino-s to excite disfjust. How much is real virtue 
and merit exposed to suffer the hardships of a stormy life? 
This is one of the duties which requires peculiar circumspec- 
tion. More complete happiness than that I have described, 
^seldom falls to the lot of mortals. There are principles in man, 
which ever have, and ever w^ill incline him to offend. Whence 
have there arose such a great variety of opinions and tenets in 
veligioi ? Its stature is less than that of a man; but its 



296 SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

strength and agility mucli greater. They that honor nie, them 
will I honor. He summons me to attend, and I must summons 
the others. Then did the officer lay hold of him, and executed 
him immediately. Who is that person whom I saw you intro- 
duce and present him to the duke ? I offer observations that 
a long and chequered pilgrimage have enabled me to mate on 
man. Every church and sect of people have a set of opinions 
peculiar to themselves. 

May thou as well as me, be meek, patient and forgiving. 
These men were under high obligation to have adhered to 
their friend in every situation of life. After I visited Europe, I 
returned to America. Their example, their influence, their 
fortune, every talent they possess, dispenses blessings on all 
around them. When a string of such sentences succeed one 
another, the effect is disagreeable. I have lately been in Gi- 
braltai-, and have seen the commander in-chief. Propriety of 
pronunciation is the giving to every word the sound which the 
politest usage of the language appropriates to it. The book is 
printed very neat, and on a fine wove paper. The fables of 
the ancients are many of them highly instructive. He resem- 
bles one of those solitary animals, that has been forced from its 
forest, to gratify human curiosity. There is not, nor ought to 
be, such a thing as constructive treason. 

He is a new created knight, and his dignity sits awkward on 
him. Hatred or revenge are things deserving of censure, 
wherever they are found to exist. If you please to employ 
your thoughts on that subject, you would easily conceive our 
miserable condition. His speech contains one of the grossest 
and infamousest calumnies which ever was uttered. A too 
great variety of studies dissipate and weaken the mind. Those 
two authors have each of them their merit. James was re- 
solved to not indulge himself in such a cruel amusement. The 



SYNTAX.- MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 297 

not attendinof to tliis rule, is the source of a very common 
error. Calumny and detraction are sparks, wliicli if you do 
not blow, they will go out of themselves. Clelia is a vain 
woman, w4iom if we do not flatter, she will be disgusted. That 
celebrate work was nearly ten years published, before its im- 
portance was at all understood. x\mbition is so unsatiable that 
it will make any sacrifices to attain its objects. A great mass 
of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature, with wildness 
and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur than if they 
were adiusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry. 

He showed a spirit of forgiveness, and a magnanimity, that 
does honor to human nature. They that honor me, I will 
honor; and them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed. 
Havino: thus bei^an to throw off the restraints of reason, he 
was soon hurried into deplorable excesses. These arts have 
enlightened, and will enlighten, every person w^ho shall atten- 
tively study them. When we succeed in our plans, its not to 
be attributed always to ourselves ; the aid of others often 
promote the end and claimour acknowledgment. Their inten- 
tions were good ; but wanting prudence, they missed the mark 
for which they aimed. I have not, nor shall not consent to a 
proposal so unjust. We have subjected ourselves to much 
expense, that thou may be well educated. This treaty was 
made at earl Moreton the governor's castle. Be especially 
careful, that thou givest no offence to the aged or helpless. 
The business w^as no sooner opened, but it was cordially ac- 
quiesced in. 

As to his general conduct, he deserved punishment as much, 
or more than his companion. lie left a son of a singular 
character, and behaved so ill that he was put in prison. If he 
does but approve my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. 
^ beg the favor of your acceptance of a copy of a view of the 

13* 



298 SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

manufactories of the West Eiding of the county of York. T 
intended to have written the letter, before he urged me to it; 
and, therefore, he has not all the merit of it. All the power of 
ridicule, aided by the desertion of friends, and the diminution 
of his estate, were not able to shake his principles. In his 
conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless professions. 
Though the measure be mysterious, it is worthy of attention. 
Be solicitous to aid such deserving persons, who appear to be 
destitute of friends. Ignorance, or the want of light, produce 
sensuality, covetousness, and those violent contests with others 
about trifles, which occasion so much misery and crimes in the 
world. 

He will one day reap the reward of his labor, if he is dili- 
gent and attentive. Till that period comes let him be con- 
tented and patient. To the resolutions which we have, upon 
due considerations, once adopted as rules of conduct, let us 
adhere firmly. He has little more of the great man besides 
the title. Though he was my superior in knowledge, he would 
not have thence a right to impose his sentiments. That pic- 
ture of the emperor's, is a very exact resemblance of him. 
How happy are the virtuous, who can rest on the protection of 
the poAverful arm, who made the earth and the heavens! 
Prosperity and adversity may be improved equally ; both the 
one and the other proceeds from the same author. He acted 
conformable with his instructions, and cannot be censured 
just) v. The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves on 
so popular a subject. The language of Divine Providence to 
all human agents is, " Hitherto shalt thou come, and no 
farther." Idle persons imagine, howsoever deficient they be in 
point of diitv, they consult at least their own satisfaction. 
Good as the cause is, it is one from which numbers are de- 
serted. The man is prudent which speaks little. 



SYNTAX, — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 299 

He acted independent of foreign assistance. Every tiling 
that we here enjoy, cliange, decay, and come to an end. All 
float on the surface of tlie river, which is running to a bound- 
less ocean, with a swift current. The winter has not been as 
severe as we expected it to have been. Temperance, more 
than medicines, are the proper means of curing many diseases. 
They understood the practical part better than liim ; but he is 
much better acquainted with the theory than them. When we 
have once drawn the line, by intelligence and precision, be- 
tween our duty and sin, the line we ought on no occasion to 
transgress. All those distinguished by extraordinary talents, 
have extraordinary duties to perform. No person shall speak 
stronger on this subject nor behave nobler, than our young 
advocate for the cause of toleration. His conduct was so pro- 
voking, that many will condemn him, and a few will pity him. 
The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor. We are in a 
perilous situation. On one side and the other, dangers meet 
us ; and each extreme shall be pernicious to virtue. 

Several pictures of the Sardinian king were transmitted to 
France, When I last saw him he had grown considerably. If 
we consult the improvement of mind, or the health of body, it is 
well known exercise is the great instrument of promoting both. 
If it were them who acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in 
fault. Whether virtue promotes our interest or no, we must 
adhere to her dictates. We should be studious to avoid too 
much indulo;ence as well as restraint, in our manao^ement of 
children. No human happiness is so complete, as does not 
contain some imperfection. His father cannot hope for thi^ 
success, unless his son gives better proofs of genius, or applies 
hi-mself with indefatio-able labor. The house framed a remon- 
sti'ance, where they spoke with great freedom of the kings pre- 
rogative. 



800 SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXEKCISES. 

The conduct which lias been mentioned, is one of those 
artifices which seduces men most easily, under appearance of 
benevolence. This is the person who we are so much obliged 
to, and who we expected to have seen, when the favor was 
conferred. He is a person of great property, but does not 
possess the esteem of his neighbors. They were solicit: us to 
ingratiate with those, who it was dishonoiable to favor. The 
great diversity which takes place among men, is not owing to 
a distinction that nature made in their original powers, as 
much as to the superior diligence with which some have im- 
proved those powers beyond others. While we are unoccupied 
in what is good, evil is at hand continually. Not a creature is 
there that moves, nor a vegetable that grows, but what, 
when minutely examined, furnishes materials of pious ad- 
miration. 

What can be the reason of the committee having delayed 
this business ? I know not whether Charles was the author, 
but I understood it to be he. A good and well cultivated 
mind, is far more preferable than rank or riches. Charity to 
the poor, when it is governed by knowledge and prudence, 
there are no persons who will not admit it to be a virtue. 
Ilis greatest concern, and highest enjoyment, were to be ap- 
proved in the sight of his Creator. Let us not set our hearts 
on such a mutable, such an unsatisfying world. 

Shall you attain success, without t^at preparation, and 
escape dangers without that precaution, w^hich is required of 
others ? When we see bad men to be honored and prosperous 
in the world, it is some discouragement to virtue. The furni- 
ture was all purchased at Wentworth's the joiner's. Every 
member of the body, every bone, joint, and muscle, lie exposfcd 
to many disorders, and the greatest prudence or precaution, 
or the deepest skill of the physician, are not sufficient to pre- 



♦ 



SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 301 

vent them. It is riglit said, that tliongh faith justify n?^, yet 
works must justify our faith. If an academy is established for 
the cultivation of our language, let them stop the license of 
translators, whose idleness and ignorance, if it be siift'LTcd to 
proceed, will reduce us to babble a dialect of French. It is of 
great consequence that a teacher firmly believes, both the 
truth and importance of those principles which he inculcates 
upon others, and that he not only speculatively believes them, 
but has a lively and serious feeling of them. 

It is not the utterino; or the hearinof certain words that con 
stitute the w^orship of the Almighty. It is the heart that 
praises, or prays. If the heart accompany not the words that 
are spoken, we offer a sacrifice of fools. Neither flatter or 
contemn the rich or the great. He has traveled much, and 
passed through many stormy seas and lands. You must be 
sensible that there is, and can be no other person but me, who 
could give the information desired. To be patient, resii>-ned 
and thankful, under afflictions and disappointments, demon- 
strate genuine piety. Alvarez was a man of corrupt principles, 
and of detestable conduct ; and, what is still worse, gloried in 
his shame. As soon as the sense of the Supreme Being is lost, 
60 soon the great check is taken off which keep under restraint 
the passions of men. Mean desires, low pleasures, takes place 
of the greater and the nobler sentiments which reason and reli- 
gion inspires. 

We should be careful not to follow the example of many 
persons, to censure the opinions, manners and customs of 
others, merely because they are foreign to us. Steady applica- 
tion, as well as genius and abilities, are necessary to produce 
eminence. There is, in that seminary, several students con- 
siderably skilled in mathematical knowledge. If providence 
clothe the grass of the field, and shelters and adorns the flowers 



802 SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

that everywhere grows wild amongst it, will he not clothe and 
protect his servants and children much more ? We are too 
often hurried with the violence of passion, or with the allure- 
ments of pleasure. High hopes, and florid views, is a great 
enemy to tranquillity. Year after year steal something from 
us, till the decaying fabric totters of itself, and crumbles at 
length into dust. I intended to have finished the letter before 
the bearer called, that he might not have been detained, but I 
was prevented by company. George is the most learned and 
accomplished of all the other students, that belong to the semi- 
nary. This excellent and well written treatise, with others 
that might be mentioned, were the foundation of his love of 
study. There can be no doubt but that the pleasures of the 
mind excel those of sense. 

The grand temple consisted of one great and several smaller 
edifices. Many would exchange gladly their honors, beauty, 
and riches, for that more quiet and humbler station which 
we are now dissatisfied with. Though the scene was a very 
aff*ecting one, Louis showed a little emotion on the occasion. 
The climate of England is not so pleasant as those of France, 
Spain, or Italy. Much of the good and evil that happens to 
us in this world, are owing to apparently undesigned and 
fortuitous events : but it is the Supreme Being which secretly 
directs and regulates all things. To despise others on account 
of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our wealth, are dis- 
positions highly culpable. This task was the easier performed, 
from the cheerfulness with which he engaged in it. She 
lamented the unhappy fate of Lucretia, who seemed to her 
another name for chastity. 

He has not yet cast ofi* all the regard for decency, and 
this is the most can be advanced in his favor. The girls 
school was better conducted formerly than the boys. The 



SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 803 

disappointments lie has met with, or the loss of his mucli- 
loved friend, has occasioned a total derangement of his men- 
tal po^vers. The concourse of people were so great, that 
with difficulty we passed through them. All the women, 
children, and treasure, which remained in the city, fell un- 
der the victor's power. They have already made great pro- 
gress in their studies, and, if attention and diligence continues, 
will soon fulfil the expectations of their friends. It is amazing 
his propensity to this vice, against every principle of interest 
and honor. These kind of vices, though they inhabit the 
upper circles of life, are not less pernicious than those we meet 
with amongst the lowest of men. 

He acted agreeable to the dictates of prudence, though he 
were in a situation exceeding delicate. If I had known the 
distress of my friend, it would be my duty to have relieved 
him, and it would always have yielded me pleasure to grant 
him that relief. They admired the countryman's, as they 
called him candor and uprightness. The new set of curtains 
did not correspond to the old pair of blinds. The tutor com- 
mends him for being more studious than any other pupil of 
the school. Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they 
may be regarded, they are the best means of preserving health. 
He has greatly blessed me, yes, even I, who, loaded with kind- 
ness, hath not been sufficiently grateful. No persons feels the 
distresses of others so much as them that have experienced 
distress themselves. 

Constantinople was the point in which was concentrated the 
learning and science of the world. Disgrace not your station, 
by that grossness of sensuality, that levity of dissipation, or 
that insolence of rank, which bespeak a little mind. A circle, 
a square, a triangle, or a hexagon, please the eye by their 
regularity, as beautiful figures. His conduct was equally un 



804 SYNTAX. — MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

just as dislionorable. Though, at first, he begun to defend 
himself, yet when the proofs appeared against him, he dared 
not any longer to contend. Many persons will not believe but 
what they are free from prejudices. The pleasure or pain of 
one passion differ from those of another. The rise and fall of 
the tides, in this place, makes a difference of about twelve feet. 
Five and seven make twelve, and one makes thirteen. He did 
not know who to suspect. I had intended yesterday to havo 
walked out, but I have been again disappointed. The court of 
Spain who gave the order, were not aware of the consequence. 
If the acquisitions he has made, and qualified him to be a 
useful member of society, should have been misapplied, he will 
be highly culpable. 

There was much spoke and wrote on each side of the ques- 
tion, but I have chose to suspend my decision. Was there no 
bad men in the world, who vex and distress the good, they 
might appear in the light of harmless innocence, but could 
have no opportunity for displaying fidelity and magnanimity, 
patience and fortitude. The most ignorant, and the most 
savage tribes of men, when they have looked round on the 
earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing theii 
origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity 
to adore their Creator. Let us not forget, that something 
more than jrentleness and modesty, somethino; more than com- 
placency of temper and affability of manners, are requisite to 
form a worthy man, or a true Christian. One of the first and 
the most common extreme in moral conduct, is placing all 
virtue in justice, or in generosity. 

It is an inflexible regard to principle, which has ever marked 
the characters of them who distinguished themselves eminently 
in public life ; who patronized the cause of justice against 
powerful oppressors ; in critical times, have supported the fall- 



SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. — PUNCTUATION. 805 

inff rioflits and liberties of men, and reflected honor on their 
nation and country. When it is with reo;ard to trilies, thai 
diversity or contrariety of opinions show themselves, it is child- 
ish in the last degree, if this becomes the ground of estranged 
affection. When from such a cause there arise any breach of 
friendship, human weakness is discovered then in a mortifying 
''ight. In matters of serious moment, the sentiments of the 
best and worthiest mioht vary from that of their friends, ac- 
cording as their lines of light diverge, or as their temper and 
habits of thought, presents objects under different points of 
view. But with candid and liberal minds, unity of affection 
still w411 be preserved. 

Desires and w^ishes are the first spring of action. AYhen 
they become exorbitant, the whole of the character is like to 
be tainted. If we should suffer our fancies to create to them- 
selves worlds of ideal happiness ; if we should feed our imagi- 
nation wath plans of opulence and of splendor ; if we should 
fix to our wishes certain stao^es of a hio-h advancement, or cer- 
tain degrees of an uncommon reputation, as the sole station of 
our felicity ; the assured consequence shall be, that we will 
become unhappy under our present state ; that we shall be un- 
fit for acting the part, and for discharging the duties that be- 
long to it ; and we shall discompose the peace and order of our 
minds, and shall foment many hurtful passions, 

PUNCTUATION. 

§ 330. Punctuation treats of the Points and 
Marks used in writing. 

§ 331. The design of punctuation is to mark 
the divisions of a sentence to show the meaning 



306 SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. OBSERVATIONS. 

more clearly^ and to serve as a guide in the pauses 
and inflections required in reading. 

§ 332. The following are the principal marks used in 
writing : 

The Comma ( , ) marks the shortest pause. 

The Semicolon ( 5 ) double that of the comma. 

The Colon ( ; ) double the semicolon. 

The Period ( • ) the longest pause. 

The Interrogation Point (?) denotes a question. 

The Exclamation (!) denotes emotion. 

The Dash ( — ) a pause of indefinite length. 

Remark. — The duration of these pauses must be left very 
much to the judgment and taste of the reader. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Remark 1. — The system of punctuation now used in English, in its 
main features, is common to many languages. It is used in Latin, Erench, 
Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, German, and perhaps most of the 
tongues in which books are now written or printed. The Germans use 
the comma less than we ; and the Spaniards usually mark a question, or 
exclamation doubly, inverting the point at the beginning of the sentence. 
In Greek the diiiercnce is greater : the colon expressed by the upper dot 
above, is the only point between the comnia and period ; the note of ex- 
clamation is that of our semicolon. In Hebrew, a full stop is denoted by 
a heavy colon ; this is the only pointing adopted when the vowel points 
and accents are not used. 

Remark 2. — It is not easy to trace the points now in use to their pre- 
cise origin. From ancient manuscripts and inscriptions it is probable that 
che period is the oldest of these marks. It is supposed by some that the 
first S3'stem of punctuation consisted in the diiierence of the position o* 
this point alone. After the adoption of the small letters, about the ninth 
century, the comma and colon came into use, and also the Greek note of 



SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION.- COMMA. 307 

interrogation. In old books the comma is often found not in the present 
form, but a straight crook, drawn up and down obUquely between the 
words. Though the colon is of Greek origin, wo owe the practice of 
writing it with two dots to Latin authors. The semicolon was first used 
in Italy, and was not adopted in England until about the sixteenth cen- 
tury. Our marks for questions and exclamations were from the same 
origin, but somewhat earlier. The curves of the parenthesis have been in 
use several centuries, but the dash is of more recent origin. 

Remark 3. — The colon is used much less frequently than formerly 
By some it is rejected entirely. 



COMMA. 

§ 333. The Comma is used only when a short 
pause is required ; e. g.;, '' I^ that did never tveep^ 
now melt in 7voe ;' " Strong proofs not a loud voice ^ 
produces conviction^ 

Rule I. — The Comma is unnecessary in a short simple sen- 
tence ; e. g., " God is love ;" " Industry is the law of our 
being ;" " Hope is necessary in every condition of lifeP 

EXERCISES. 

Write the sentences in the following exercises, and correct the errors in 
the use of the comma. 

Model. — "All finery, is the sign of littleness." 
Corrected. — " All finery is the sign of httleness." 

Webster, is not contented with his position. Knowledge, 
strengthens the mind. God, made the world. The sea, con- 
tains many animals. Uncle William, is a merchant. James, 
obtained his request. The general, ordered the army to march. 



808 SYNTAX.— PUx^CTUATIO:JT.— COMMA. 

Washington, was eminent for his prudence. The horse, runs 
swiftly. James, has lost my book. Wild animals, inhabit dark 
caves. 

Rule II. — ^When the logical subject is rendered long by the 
addition of several adjuncts to the grammatical subject, a com- 
ma is usually inserted before the verb ; e. g., " Study and un- 
divided attention to one pursuit^ will give success ;" " To he 
totally indifferent to praise or censure^ is a real defect in char- 
acter." 

Remark. — This rule is much less observed by recent, than former 
writers. 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises and insert commas in their proper places. 

Model. — "The necessity of an early acquaintance with history has al- 
ways been acknowledged." 

Punctuated. — " The necessity of an early acquaintance with history 
has always been acknowledged." 

The punishment of the reckless disturber of society tends to 
secure peace. The want of some pursuit to occupy our time is 
often productive of lasting evil. The intermixture of evil in 
society seems to exercise the noblest virtues of the soul. A 
steady and undivided attention to one pursuit commonly gives 
success. Indifference to the ordinary pursuits of life is indica- 
tive of a defective judgment. The voice of reason and mercy 
prevailed over strong passion and revenge. The belief that 
God is merciful affords us relief in time of distress and trouble. 
Propriety of conduct and undivided attention to your profes 
sion will make you popular and esteemed. The son and 
daughter of the emigrant perished in the conflagration. To 
know God and serve him should form the great end of our 



SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 809 

existence. The follv of Martha's conduct and lier want of in- 
tegrity will cause her to lose the esteem of her early acquaint- 
ances. To know what to do and how to do it is the thing. 

Rule III. — A Comma is generally used between the clauses 
of a compound sentence; e. g., ^^Phocion was poor^ though he 
might have been richP 

Remark. — When the members of a compound sentence are closely con- 
nected, the comma is not used; e. g., ^^ The hook which was lost is 
foundy 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert commas in their proper places. 
Model. — " Henrj' will return when you send for him." 
Punctuated. — " Henry will return, when you send for him." 

The more highly we^cultivate our minds here the better shaL 
we be prepared for the nobler pursuits of the next stage of 
existence. Grace of manners is so essential to rulers that when- 
ever it is neoflected their virtues lose a 2:reat deo-ree of lustre 
We sometimes forget our faults when we are not reminded of 
them. Virtue supports in adversity and moderates in prosper- 
ity. Your patron though he might have had large possessions 
was poor and in great want. The principles that had been in- 
stilled in his mind in boyhood influenced the whole conduct of 
his life. Revelation teaches us how we may attain happiness 
both here and hereafter. Love not sleep lest you come to poverty. 
Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the understanding 
deadens the moral feelings and degrades man from his rank in 
c cation. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm 
and constant spirit will lead to honor. .James would have gone 
with you to the fair if you had invited him. 



810 SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. —COMMA. 

EuLE IV. — Two or more words of tlie same class, whetliei 
nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs, connected by conjunctions, 
do not admit of a comma between them ; e. g., " The earth 
and moon are planets P 

Remark 1. — When the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is in- 
serted; e. g., " Your friend is a ijlain^ honest many 

Remark 2. — If the connected words have adjuncts, a comma may be 
mserted ; e. g., ^^Intemperance destroys the vigor of our bodies^ and the 
strength of our minds^ 

EXERCISES. 

"Write the following exercises, and correct the errors in punctuation. 
Model. — "Religion expands, and elevates the mind." 
Corrected. — " Religion expands and elevates the mind." 

A man of integrity, and honor m.ay be trusted in any posi- 
tion. Matilda was a gentle affectionate girl. Tlie eartli, and 
tbe moon are planets. Man is fearfully and wonderfully made. 
A good man will love himself too well to lose and his neighbor 
too well to win an estate by gaming. 

Intemperance destroys the vigor of our bodies and the 
streno'th of our minds. Thomas is an intelhVent industrious 
boy. A proper love for our country and a proper love for the 
liuman race are consistent with each other. William can read 
but not write. I spoke of his virtue as a prominent charac- 
teristic not his selfishness. Jane is a person studious of change 
and fond of novelty. Your neighbor is a plain unsophisticated 
man and has seen but little of the world. 

Rule V. — More than two or three words of the same class, 
connected by a conjunction expressed or understood, take a 
comma after each ; e. g., " Poetry^ music, and painting are 
fine artsP 



SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 311 

Remark 1. — When the words counected are adjectives, the last should 
Qot be separated from its noun by a comma; e. g , " lie was a brave^ -wise 
and pious citizen^ 

Remark 2. — AVords used in pairs take a comma after each pair; e. g., 
" Anarchy and confiLsion^ poverty and distress^ desolation and ruin are the 
consequences of civil war.^^ 



EXERCISES. 

"Write the following exercises, and insert commas in their proper places 
Model. — " Robert William and Thomas were present." 
Punctuated. — '' Robert, William, and Thomas were present." 

Tranquillity regularity and magnanimity possess the hearts 
of the pious. Truth is fair and artless simple and secure uni- 
form and consistent. Your friend was ruined by self-conceit 
presumption and obstinacy. We should be modest whether 
we eat or drink labor or sleep. Matilda Sarah and Mary were 
at the picnic yesterdav. 

True worshippers of beauty behold it in the loveliest flower 
meet it in every path and enjoy it everywhere. Some men sin 
frequently deliberately and presumptuously. We may find 
tonorues in trees books in runnino^ brooks sermons in stones 
and good in every thing. There is a natural difference be- 
tween merit and demerit virtue and vice wisdom and folly. 
Y'our cousin is a beautiful artless modest girl unaffected and 
unassuminor in her manners. Webster was noble hio-hminded 
a man of generous impulses. 

Rule YI. — The nominative independent with its adjuncts 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; 
e. g., " Henry^ you may return ;" " The soldiers retreatingj 
victory was lost." 



812 SYNTAX. — PUKCTUATION.— COMMA. 

EXERCISES. 

"Write the following exercises, and insert commas in their proper plaoea 
Model. — "The general having been slain the army was lost." 
Punctuated. — '* The general having been slain, the army was lost. 

The wheel at rest motion stops. Shame being lost all virtue 
is lost. I remain sir your most obedient servant. Time being 
precious we should diligently improve in whatever w^e may be 
engaged. Edward having mastered the difficulty determined 
to persevere until he could claim the victory. Chilton being 
a man of great prudence he gained friends on every side. 
The judge being absent nothing was done. My son give me 
thy heart. 

To say the least both William and Thomas have shown 
great want of prudence in the whole transaction. Continue 
my dear children to walk in the path of virtue it is the only 
safe course. To prevent long and tedious litigation much 
against my consent I agreed to submit to the terms. Those 
happy dreams of boyhood whither have they fled ! At length 
his object having been efi'ected he returned. The sun ap- 
proaching the snow melted. Dick bring the pony from the 
lot for your young master, Thomas bring me your slate and I 
will examine that calculation. ^ 

Rule VII. — Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma, 
when the latter noun has several words or adjuncts connected 
with it ; e. g., " Paul^ the apostle to the Gentiles, was eminent 
for his zealP 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert commas in their proper places. 
Model. — "Albany the capital of New York is on the Hudson." 
Punctuated. — *' Albany, the capital of New York, is on the Hudson." 



SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 813 

Charles the Twelfth king of Sweden was a madman. I*ora- 
pey contended with Cicsar the greatest general of his times. 
Uersehel a distino-uished astronomer of Entrland discovered 
the planet Uranus. When I was in Montgomery I saw Smith 
the coachmaker. Truth a gem most precious cannot be over- 
ruled. Have you read Milton's great work Paradise Lost? 
Henry recovered a result that was not expected. Okland's 
Henry's estate is a plantation of great value. Hope the balm 
of life in time of distress is our greatest comforter. Coleridge 
a remarkable poet was the friend of Wordsworth. When 
James was here he spoke of Howard the philanthropist in 
terms of admiration. Washinjrton the commander of the 
American forces durino; the Revolution was born on the banks 
of the Potomac. 

W^iiliara the Conqueror subdued England. His dog a faith- 
ful friend kept silent watch. The river Jordan flow^s into the 
Dead Sea. Macaulay the historian is one of the best writers 
of the present century. Call at my friend Atkinson's the 
grocer for the package. Brother Edward wTote a letter for 
the blind boy recommending him to the sympathies of his 
friends. Delii^htful task to rear the tender thouo-ht. Solomon 
king of Israel built a temple. James wrote a composition for 
his brother Thomas. Truth a gem most precious cannot be 
overruled. James To! man merchant is a man of the strictest 
integrity. The faculty promptly acceded to his request an act 
which reflects great credit on the institution. Time labor 
money all were lost. 

Pule VHT. — A comma is generally placed after an adverb 
or adverbial phrase used at the commencement of a sentence; 
e. g., Flrsty secondly^ ttc. 



14 



314 SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION.— COMMA. 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert the comma where required. 
Model. — "Lastly strive to preserve a conscience void of offence." 
Punctuated. — " Lastly, strive to preserve a conscience void of offence.'' 

Indeed it was impossible to convince him by any argument. 
Finally many confidentially say my mountain stands strong and 
shall never be moved. Generally it will be found that honesty 
is the best policy. Indeed you could not convince him by any 
argument. Secondly I shall proceed to point out what should 
be the proper state of our temper towards each other. Lastly 
my dear children I admonish you to make virtue your prin- 
cipal study. 

We must not however confound this gentleness with the 
artificial courtesies of the world. But unfortunately for us the 
tide was ebbing already. Most unquestionably no fraud was 
equal to all this. Besides the mind must be employed. Yes 
both were engaged in the transaction. The fact certainly is 
much otherwise. However Providence saw fit to cross our 
designs. For nothing surely can be more inconsistent than 
his conduct. Besides I know that the eye of the public is 
upon me. 

Rule IX. — A comma is generally introduced w^here a verb 
is understood ; e. g., " From law arises security ; from secur^ 
iti/j curiosity^ 

EXERCISES. 

"Write the following exercises, and insert commas in their proper places. 

Model. — "In prosperity he was too much elated — in adversity too 
despondent." 

Punctuated. — ' In prosperity, he was too much elated — in adversity, 
too despondent," 



SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 3l5 

Your friend succeeds by flattery — mine by merit, riiiioso- 
pliy makes us wise ; Christianity better. Dryden knew more 
of man in his general nature ; Pope in his local manners. 
The body is mortal — the soul immortal. Ignorance produces 
vice ; and vice misery. 

Homer leads us with a commanding impetuosity — Virgil 
with an attractive majesty. Reading makes a full man ; con- 
versation a ready man ; and w^riting an exact man. From law 
arises security ; from security curiosity ; from curiosity knowl- 
edge. Benevolence is allied to few vices ; selfishness to few^er 
virtues. The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case ; 
and the objective the accusative. The comma represents the 
shortest pause ; the semicolon a pause longer than the comma; 
and the period longer than the colon. Thomas depends on no 
one ; James on every one. 

Rule X. — When a sentence or an infinitive is the subject 
of a verb, and the verb stands after it, it generally has a com- 
ma before it ; e. g., " The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw 
from company r 

EXERCISES. 

"Write the following exercises, and insert commas in their proper places. 
Model. — " A desire to imprpve is commendable." 
Punctuated. — "A desire to improve, is commendable." 

An opportunity w^as afforded him by the citizens to correct 
the errors of his youth. The opinion that the republican form 
of government is the best is no longer problematical. To 
know and serve God should be the great object of our exist- 
ence. To treat our enemies kindly is the surest way to make 
them our friends. 



816 SYNTAX.— PUNCTUATION.— SEMICOLON. 

A disposition to excel will stimulate him to a greater exer- 
-n. The fact that he was a distinguished speaker was soon 
parent to all. A peace that consults the good of the coun- 
; at large is very desirable at this time. A round of vain 
d giddy pursuits is pleasing to the young. A desire to im- 
ove and to be profited by your conversation has brought me 
•re. The attempt to injure his friend lowered him in the 
timation of all his friends. 



SEMICOLON. 

§ 334. The Semicolon is generally used to 
divide a compound sentence into two or more 
parts^ not so closely connected as those which are 
separated by a comma; e. g., '' Straivs swim upon 
the surface ; hut pearls lie at the bottom J^ 

EXERCISES. 

"Write the following exercises, and insert semicolons in their proper 
places. 

Model. — "Perform your duty faithfully for this will procure you the 
blessing of Heaven." 

Punctuated. — " Perform your duty faithfully; for this will procure jou 
the blessing of Heaven." 

The richest genius like the most fertile soil when uncul- 
tivated shoots into the rankest weeds and instead of vines and 
olives for the use and pleasure of men produces to the slothful 
o^yner a most abundant crop of poisons. Martha and Jane are 
both well dressed in their appearance Martha is the neatest 



SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. — SEMICOLON. 317 

but Jane the most sliowy. Every thing grows old every thing 
passes away every thing disappears. 

Philosophers assert that nature is unlimited in her operations 
that knowledge will always be in progress and that all future 
generations will eontinue to make discoveries of which we have 
not the slightest idea. The passions are the chief destroyers of 
our peace the storms and tempests of the moral world. Heaven 
is the region of gentleness and love hell of fierceness and 
animosity. To give an early preference to honor above gain 
when they stand in competition to despise every advantage 
that cannot be attained without dishonest acts to brook no 
meanness and stoop to no dissimulation are the inclinations of 
a great mind the presages of future eminence and usefulness 
in life. That darkness of character where we can see no heart 
those foldinofs of art throuo-li which no native affection is 
allowed to penetrate present an object un amiable in every season 
of life bat particularly odious in youth. As there is a worldly 
sense or view of happiness which God perceives to be no other 
than disguised misery as there are worldly honors which in 
his estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which 
in his sight is foolishness. Let us deceive ourselves no longer 
by considering the co-education of the sexes as productive of 
naught but evil but rather let us consider that they were 
created to enjoy each other's society and to improve and 
strengthen each other in every good and great work when 
placed together under healthful and efficient regulations. The 
member of a compound sentence on which the other members 
depend is called the leading clause its subject the leading sub- 
ject and its verb the leading verb. 



818 SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. — COLON. 



COLON. 

§ 335. The Colon is used to separate the parts 
of a sentence which are not so closely connected 
as to require a semicolon; e. g.^, '^ Study to acquire 
the liabit of thinking : no study is 7nore important^ 

Remark. — The colon is seldom used by modem writers, except befcre 
examples following the expressions, as follows^ the following examples^ in 
these wordSj &c., &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert the colon and other points 
where required. 

Model, — " Our distinguished friend Colonel Preston next addressed the 
concourse as follows Gentlemen and ladies &c." 

Punctuated. — "Our distinguished friend, Colonel Preston, next ad- 
dressed the concourse as follows: Gentlemen and ladies, &c." 

Do not flatter yourself with the Lope of perfect happiness 
there is no such thing in this life. The warrior spoke as 
follows man with wine why dost thou thus keep prattling? 
Accent is of two kinds Primary and Secondary. Avoid evil 
doers in such society an honest man may become ashamed of 
himself. See that moth fluttering incessantly around the 
candle man of pleasure behold thy image ! Some things we 
can and others we cannot do we can walk but we cannot fly. 

His last words were as follows Gentlemen of the Jury &c. 
He often uttered these words I have done with the world and 
am willing to leave it. A brute arrives at a point of perfection 
that he can never pass in a few years he has all the endow- 
ments he is capable of. Princes have courtiers and merchants 



SYNTAX . PUNCTUATION. — PERIOD. 319 

have partners the volnptuous have companions and the wicked 
have accomplices none but the virtuous can have friendst 
Unless the truth of religion be granted a Christian must be 
the greatest monster in nature he must at the same time be 
eminently wise and notoriously foolish a wise man in his prac 
tice and a fool in belief his reasoning powers must be deranged 
by constant delirium while his conduct never swerves from the 
path of propriety. 

The three greatest enemies to tranquillity are vice supersti 
tion and idleness vice which disturbs and poisons the mind 
with bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary 
horrors idleness which loads it with tediousness and diso^ust. 
Write the following exercises on your slates, 

PERIOD. 

§ 336. The Period is used to mark the end 
of a complete sentence ; e. g.^ ''Each day hnngs 
intelligence of some new disaster T 

Remare:. — The period is used after abreviations ; e. g., A. M., LL. D., 
D. D., Mr. B. 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert periods in their proper 
places. 

Model. — ' ' Gen G- W Gunn resides in Tuskeegee" 
Punctuated. — " Gen. G. W. Gunn resides in Tuskeegee." 

Alfred wrote a letter to his parents The selfish man Ian 
guishes in his narrow circle of pleasures Col Harvey is Ed of 
the Ala Beacon H Smith was elected chairman pro tern We 
attended the Rev Doct Murray's church yesterday and heard 



820 SYNTAX. — PUNCTUATION. — INTERROaATION. 

an excellent discourse At your earliest conv^enience examine 
Add Spect No 285 

The fairest flowers are first to fade Dr T M Peterson has 
an extensive practice The oration was delivered by our friend 
L Smith M D Wise men commonly measure time by im- 
provement The age of the MS S is unknown We can make 
ourselves happy without riches The event of which you spoke 
occurred B C 3025 The force of a true individual is felt 
through every clause the commas and dashes are alive 

NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

§ 337. The Note of Interrogation is placed at 
the end of a sentence in which a direct question is 
asked ; e. g.^ ''' What is to be done?'' 

Remark. — This mark must not be used after indirect questions; e. g., 
** They asked me why I wepty " Why I wept" is not a direct question, 
and should not take the note of interrogation. 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert interrogation and other points 
in their proper places. 

Model. — "What excuse can be offered in palliation of his offence to 
George" 

Punctuated. — " What excuse can be offered in palliation of his offence 
to George ?" 

How will Jane bear the disappointroent By whom was the 
victory achieved Who first discovered America To whom is 
William superior In what was the man superior How did 
^^ary read her composition Where is the recitation for to-day 
In what manner did brother endure the operation Who wrote 



« 



SYNTAX. — PUXCTUATION.— INTERROGATION, 321 

my naine on tlie blackboard I was asked if I had read Milton 
Did Willis lose Alfred's pencil Father asked George where he 
had been AVas Chancellor Mason consulted 

When was the city of Moscow taken AVhat officer com- 
mands here Which company of soldiers paraded to-day 
Mention the principal classes of adverbs Why Henry when 
did you arrive IIow do men become rich Was it possible 
that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice that the 
proudest and most ambitious of mankind should be the great 
master and accomplished pattern of humility that a doctrine so 
pure as the Gospel should be the work of an unmissioned pre- 
tender that so perfect a system of morals should be established 
on blasphemy The Cyprians asked me why I wept When 
will his ear delio-ht in the sound of arms 

" Where w^here for shelter shall the guilty fly 
When consternation turns the good man pale" 

Canst thou by searching find out God Canst thou find out 
the Almighty to perfection It is high as heaven what canst 
thou do deeper than hell what canst thou know If it be asked 
why a pause should be any more necessary to emphasis than 
accent or why an emphasis alone w^ill not sufficiently distin- 
guish the members of sentences from each other Tvithout pauses 
as accent does words the answer is obvious that we are pre- 
acquainted.w^ith the sound of w^ords and cannot mistake them 
when distinctly pronounced however rapidly but w^e are not 
pre-acquainted with the meaning of sentences which must be 
pointed out to us by tjae reader or speaker — Sheridan's RheU 

Gram. 

14* 



322 SYNTAX.— PUNCTUATION. — EXCLAMATION. 

EXCLAMATION. 

§ 338. The Note of Exclamation is used after 
expressions of sudden emotion or passion^ and after 
solemn invocations and addresses; e. g., ''' Hailj 
hoi?/ light ! offspring of heaven first-horn r 

Remark. — Whon the exclamation Oh is used, the point is generally 
placed immediately after it ; but when is employed, the point is placed 
after one or more of the intervening words ; e. g., " Oh ! my offence it 
smells to heaven^ " 0, haste my father^ s heart to cheer P^ 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert the exclamation and other 
points in their proper places. 

Model. — '' Oh how our hearts were beating" 
Punctuated. — " Oh ! how our hearts were beating I" 

Alas it is to be feared that true friendship has tat en its de- 
parture from earth feeble boast of transitory power How 
happy are the righteous Oh let my weakness have an end 
O make my grave where the sunbeams rest Hush I will not 
hear you speak thus O fie what are you doing Ha I have 
caught you now Indeed it is Matilda herself Alas w^here evil 
abounds life has no pleasure Lord how great is thy good- 
ness Welcome my dearest friend Strange what will happen 
next 

Astonishing what do you mean Bravo that was well done 
Farewell may happiness attend your path Shame would you 
kill the poor dog Adieu my friend we may meet again 
Grammatical accuracy what a gem 

" And O till earth and seas and heaven decav 
Ne'er may that fair creation fade away" — Dr. Lowth. 



SYNTAX.— PUNCTUATION. — DASH 32S 

Weep on the rocks of roaring winds O maid of Inistore 
How much better is wisdom than gold At that hour O liow 
vain was all sublunary happiness Cease a little while O wind 
stream be thou silent a little while let my voice be heard 
around Alas how few and transitory are the joys which this 
world affords to man Whereupon O king Agrippa I was not 
disobedient to the heavenlv vision 

"An Author T'is a venerable name 
How few deserve it and what numbers claim" 



THE DASH. 

§ 339. The Dash is used when a sentence is 
left unfinished: when there is a sudden turn or an 
abrupt transition ; and where a significant pause is 
required ; e. g.^ '^ Let the government do this — the 
people will do the 7'est.' 



>> 



EXERCISES. 

Write the following exercises, and insert the dash and other points in 
their proper places. 

Model. — *' I pause for a reply None Then none have I offended I 
have done no more to Caesar than you should do to Brutus" 

Punctuated. — " I pause for a reply. — None ? — Then none have I 
offended. — I have done no more to Caesar than you should do to Brutus." 

"'I must inquire into the affair and if 'And if inter 
rupted the farmer." "Whom I But first 'tis fit the billowii 
to restrain" 

" Tarry a little There is something else 
This bond doth give the Jew no jot of blood" 



324 SYNTAX. — PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

" If 1 were an American as I am an Englisliman whilfe a 
foreign troop remained in my country I would never lay down 
my arms never never never" " Do not plunge thyself too far 
in anger lest thou should hasten thy trial which if the Lord 
have mercy on thee for a hen" 

*'The mountain thy pall and thy prison may keep thee 
I shall see thee no more but till death I will weep thee." 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

Humor and Eloquence. — Hook was a Scotchman a man 
of wealth and suspected of being unfriendly to the American 
cause During the distress of the American army consequent 
on the invasion of Cornwallis and Philips in 1731 a commissary 
of the army had taken two of Hook's steers for the use of the 
troops The act had not been strictly legal and on the estab- 
lishment of peace Hook on the advice of Mr Cowan a gentle- 
man of some distinction in the law thought proper to bring an 
action of trespass against the commissary in the Disti'ict Court 
of New London Patrick Henry appeared for the defendant and 
is said to have disported himself in the cause to the infinite 
enjoyment of his hearers the unfortunate Hook excepted. 

After Mr Henry became animated in the cause says a cor- 
respondent he appeared to liave complete control over the 
passions of his audience at one time he excited their indigna- 
tion against Hook vengeance was visible in every countenance 
attain when he choose to relax and ridicule him the whole 
audience was in a roar of laughter lie painted the distresses 
of the army exposed almost naked to the rigors of a winter 
sky and marking the frozen ground on which they trod with 
the blood of their unshod feet Where was the man he said 



SYNTAX. — OTHER CHARACTERS. 825 

ttat had an American heart in his bosom who would not have 
thrown open his fields his barns his cellars and the doors of 
his house and the portals of his breast to receive with open 
arms the meanest soldier in that little band of famished patriots 
Where is the man There he stands but w^hether the heart of 
an American beats in his bosom you gentlemen are to judge 
He then carried the jury by the power of his imagination to 
the plains around York the surrender of wdiich had followed 
shortly after the act complained of he depicted the surrender in 
the most glowing and noble colors of eloquence the audience 
saw before their eyes the humiliation and dejection of th^ 
British as they marched out of their trenches they saw the tri- 
umph that lighted up every patriot's face heard the shouts of 
victory and the cry of " Washington and Liberty" as it rung 
and echoed through the American ranks and was reverberated 
from the hills and shores of the neio-hborino* river " but hark 
w^hat notes of discord are those that disturb the general joy 
and silence the acclamation of victory they are the notes of 
John Hook hoarsely bawling through the American camp 
' Beef beef beef ' "— Wirt. 

^^ For additional exercises the pupil may be required to write on 
the blackboard some portion of any well-pointed book, omitting all the 
points ; and then requiring him to punctuate it, and give the rules for 
pointing. 

OTHER CHARACTERS. 

§ 340. The Apostrophe (') is used to denote the omission 
of one or more letters ; e. g., " 0''er kill and daleT " The 
Southern Universiti/ is located at GreenshoroT 

It is also used to denote the possessive case ; e. g., " Roberts 
hook is on the deskj^ 



826 SYNTAX. — OTHER CHARACTERS. 

§ 341. A Caret ( ^ ) is a mark used to indicate the place 

where some word or letter has been left out in writing ; e. g., 

will from 

" / hope that you call^ on your return Columbia^ and stay some 

time with usP ^ 

§ 342. A Hyphen (-) is a mark used to connect compound 
words ; e. g., Horse-man ; High-school, 

It is also used at the end of a line to show that one or more 
syllables of the last word are carried to the next line. 

§ 343. The Diaeresis (*•) is placed over the latter of two 
vowels to show that they do not form a diphthong ; e. g., 
Aerial ; Orthoepy. 

§ 344. The Acute Accent {^) denotes a short sound ; e. g., 
Fdn-cy, 

§ 345. The Grave Accent ( ^ ) denotes a long sound ; e. g., 
Fa-vor, 

EemA-RK. — ^The acute accent is often used to denote an accented syllable 
whether long or short. 

§ 346. Short and long syllables are generally denoted by 
the Breve (^) and Dash ("") ; e. g., Folly ; rosy, 

§ 347. The Section (§) marks the small divisions of a book 
or a chapter. 

§ 348. The Paragraph (^) denotes the beginning of a new 
subject. 

§ 349. The Crotchets ( () ) or Brackets ( [] ) generally en- 
close some explanation, or something which is intended to 
prevent mistake ; e. g., " John told James, that he {James) 
was to study." 

§ 350. The Marks of Quotation (^' '') enclose the words 
of another ; e. g., " 0, make my grave where the sun-beams 
restr 

§ 351. The Index {JS^) is used to point out any thing 



SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 827 

which demands particular attention ; e. g., i£5r* " Get the 
bestr 

§ 352. The Brace ( — -^ — -) is used to connect words that 
have one common term, or three lines of poetry having the 
same rhyme, called a triplet. 

§ 353. An Ellipsis ( ) or (* ^ ^') is used when some 

letters are omitted from a name ; e. g., B ??, for Byron, 

§354. The Asterisk ( * ), the Dagger ( f ), the Double 
Dagger ( J ), and Parallels ( || ), refer to marginal notes. The 
letters of the alphabet and numerical figures are often used 
for the same purpose. 

§ 355. The Cedilla ( ^ ) is a mark borrowed from the French; 

it is placed under the letter c to give it the sound of s beforf 

a or ; e. g., Alenpon; fafade. 

REiiARK. — In Worcester's Dictionary, it is attached to three other Ie< 
ters to denote their soft sounds ; viz., G as J: S as Z; H as Gz, 

QUESTIONS. 

What does Punctuation treat of? 

What is the design of points ? 

What are the principal marks used in writing ? 

AVhat is said of the duration of the pauses? 

What is the o-eneral rule for the use of the Comma ? 

W^hat is said of short sentences ? 

W^hen is a comma used in a simple sentence? 

When in a compound sentence ? 

What is the rule respecting two w^ords of the same class 
connected by a conjunction ? 

When should the comma be inserted? 

What is the rule in regard to three or more words of the 
same class connected by a conjunction ? 



828 SYNTAX. — GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 

What should be observed when several adjectives are con- 
nected? 

What is the rule v^hen words are used in pairs ? 

What is the rule for the nominative independent? 

For nouns in apposition ? 

For adverbs and adverbial phrases at the commencement of 
a sentence ? 

When the verb is understood ? 

When the subject is a sentence or an infinitive placed after 
a verb ? 

When is the Semicolon used ? 

The Colon ? The Period ? 

Note of Interrogation ? Exclamation ? Dash ? 

For what is the Apostrophe used ? 

The Caret ? The Hyphen ? The Diaeresis ! 

What is the use of the Acute Accent ? 

The Grave ? The Breve ? The Dash ? 

The Section ? The Paragraph ? 

Crotchets or Brackets ? 

Marks of Quotation ? Index ? 

Brace ? Ellipsis ? Dagger ? Double Dagger ? 

Asterisk ? Parallels ? 

What is said of the Cedilla ? 

Its use ? 

How used by Worcester ? 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 

§ 356. A Grammatical Figure is some devia- 
tion from the ordinary form, or construction^ or 
application of words in a sentence, for the purpose 



SYNTAX. — FiaUIXES OF ETYMOLOGY. 329 

of greater precision^ variety, or elegance of ex- 
pression. 

§ 357. There are three kinds of Figures, viz., 
of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. 

Remark. — Figures of Etymology and Syntax refer to the form oi 
words, or their construction. Figures of Rhetoric, to their application. 
Figures when judiciously employed, both strengthen and adorn expres- 
sion. They occur more frequently in poetry than prose ; several of them 
are merely poetic liconce. 



FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 358. A Figure of Etymology is some de- 
parture from the ordinary or simple form of a 
word. 

Remark. — Figures in Etymology consist either in a defect, an excess, 
or a change, in some of the elements of a word. 

§ 359. The most important are eight; viz., Apharesis, 
Prosthesis, Syncope, Apocope, Paragoge, Diaeresis, Synseresis, 
and Tmesis. 

§ 360. Apharesis cuts off a letter or a syllable from the 
beginning of a word ; e. g., ''Gainst ; ^gan ; ''hove ; for against ; 
began; above, 

§ 361. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning 
of a word ; e. g., ^down ; enchain ; for down ; chain, 

§ 362. Syncope removes a letter or syllable from the mid- 
dle of a word; e. g.. O'er ; e'er; lov''d ; for over ; ever; 
loved, 

§ 363. Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of 
a word ; e. g., Th^ ; thd' ; for the ; though. 



380 SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 

§ 3i34. Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a 
word ; e. g., Deary ; houndQW ; for dear ; hound. 

§ 365. Diaeresis separates two vowels which otherwise 
might form a diphthong ; e. g., Coordinate ; zoology. 

§ 366. Synseresis contracts two syllables into one ; e. g., 
ThoiCvt ; Hh ; for thou art; it is, 

§ 367. Tmesis separates a compound word by inserting a 
word between its parts; e. g., What time soever; for what- 
soever, 

EXERCISES. 

Point out and describe the different Figures of Etymology in the fot 
lowing examples. 

Vain tampering has but fostered his disease. Bend 'gainst 
the steepy hill thy breast. Th' aerial pencil forms the scene 
anew. I gladly shunn'd who gladly fled from me. 

"The winter's wind, 
Which when it bites and blows upon my body 
Even 'till I shrink with cold, I smile and say, 
This is no flattery." 

" A heart has throbb'd beneath that leathern breast 
And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled." 
*'The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, 
Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. 
" ' Certes,' quoth he, * it is not e'en in grace 
T' undo the past and eke your broken years.' " 

Thomson, 

Enchained he lay a monster. Adown, Carlo, your feet are 
dirty. What way soe'er we turned danger threatened us with 
immediate death. 



SYNTAX. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 831 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

§ 368. A Figure of Syntax is some deviation 
from the ordinary construction of a word, used for 
the sake of greater force or beauty. 

Remark. — Figures of Syntax consist in a defect, an excess, or a change 
in some of the elements of a sentence. 

§ 369. Of tliese, the most important are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, 
Syllepsis, Enallage, and Hyperbaton. 

§ 370. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to the 
full construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the 
idea intended ; e. g., " The men^ women, and children were all 
assembled J^ 

Explanation. — "The men, women, and children were all assembled ;" 
— ^in this sentence the is omitted before women and children. 

1^^ It should be understood that the words omitted by this figure a3 
truly belong to the sentence, grammatically considered, as those which are 
expressed. 

§ 371. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous w^ords, 
to give greater force or emphasis to the expression ; e. g., 
" But of the ti'ce of knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt 
not eat of itP 

Explanation. — •• But of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, thou 
shalt not eat — of it;" — in this sentence the words of it are introduced to 
render the command more emphatic. 

^^ This figure is allowable only when, in animated discourse, it ab- 
ruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it 
more strongly ; e. g., "jETe that hath ears to hear, let him hear." '* All ye 
inhabitants of the earth, and dwellers on the earth,^^ "I know thee, 
wlw thou arty 

§ 372. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by 
which we conceive the idea expressed otherwise than the words 



332 SYNTAX. —EXERCISES. 

import, and construe them according to the sense conceived ; 
e. o'., '' While evenino; draws her crimson curtains round '' — 

Th0?7lS07l, 

Explanation. — " While evening draws her crimson curtains round;" 
— ^In this sentence evening is personified. 

2;^^ This form of expression is usually connected with some figure of 
hetoric. 

§ 373. Enallage is a change of one part of speech for an- 
other, or some modification of a word for another ; e. g., " They 
fall successive, and successive rise." — Pope, 

Explanation. — "They fall successive, and successive rise;" — in this 
sentence the adjective successive is used for the adverb successively, 

§ 374. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; e. g., 
" Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto 
you." 

Eemark. — This figure is often employed in poetry ; judiciously used, it 
produces harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity, 

EXERCISES. 

Point out and describe the different Figures of Syntax in the following 
exercises. 

Conscience pleads her cause within the breast. So little 

mercy shows who needs so much. Prythee, Peace. Every 

moment subtracts from what it adds to our lives. Love your 

enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate 

you. The city of London have expressed their sentiments with 

freedom and firmness. The word was made flesh and dwelt 

amongst us, and we beheld his glory. 

" An ass will with his long ears fray 

The flies that tickle him, away ; 

But man deliofhts to have his ears 

Blown maggots in by flatterers." — Butler, 



SYNTAX. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 833 

Now Harry lie had long suspected. The paper you sent mo 
is much daiuao-ed. Our minds are as different as our faces. 
He seemed as if deranged. Seven circling planets we beheld. 

"The thundor raises his tremendous voice." — Thomson. 

" Sure some disaster has befell." — Gay, 

" So Furious was that onset's shock 
Destruction's gates at once unlock." — Hogg, 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

§ 375. A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional 
deviation from the ordinary application of words. 
These figures are sometimes called tropes. 

§ 37G. The principal figures of Rhetoric are 
fifteen ; viz., Metaphor, Simile, Allegory, Per 
sonification, Metonymy, Vision, Synecdoche, 
Irony, Antithesis, Hyperbole, Exclamation, In^ 
terrogation, Paralepsis, Apostrophe, Climax. 

§ 377. A Metaphor is' a figure founded on the resemblance 
of two objects, the name and properties of the one being 
ascribed to the other; e. g., "Thy word is a lamp to my 
feet." 

Explanation. — "Thy word is a lamp to my feet;" — in this example, 
lamp is used metaphorically to affirm that the divine word instructs men 
in the course of conduct to be pursued, just as a lamp directs them in the 
dark how to choose their footsteps. 

8 378. Simile is a fiixure founded on the resemblance of 
two objects, the one being likened to the other ; e. g., "He 
is as swift as the windr 



334 SYNTAX. FIGUKE3 OF RHETOEIC. 

Explanation. — " He is as swift as the wind;" — in this sentente the 
resemblance between the horse and the ^vind is in swiftness. 

§ 379. Alleo'ory is a series of metaphors continued throngli 
an entire narration representing one subject by another anal- 
ogous to it. The subject represented is not formally an- 
nounced, but easily discovered on reflection ; e. g., " Thou hast 
brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen 
and planted it. Thou prepared st room for it, and didst cause 
it to take deep root; and it filled the land. The hills were 
covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were 
like goodly cedars." 

Explanation. — "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast 
cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room for it, and 
didst cause it to take deep root; and it filled the land. Tlie hills were 
covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like goodly 
cedars." In this allegory the writer represents the Jewish nation under 
the figure of a vine. 

§ 380. Personification is a figure by which intelligence and 
personality are ascribed to irrational animals and inanimate 
things ; e. g., " My children, the aged Goat replied." 

Explanation. — "My children, the aged Goat replied." Here the goat 
is represented as a parent counselling his family, and instructing them in 
regard to their future interests. 

§ 381. Metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for 

the effect, or the efi*ect for the cause ; e. g., " Thomas has read 

MiltoiiP " Gray hairs should be respected." 

Explanation. — "Thomas has read Milton;" "Gray hairs should bo 
respected ;" — in tlie first example Milton is put for Milton^ s works ; in the 
second, gray hairs, for old age. 

§ 382. Vision is a figure by which the speaker represents 
past events, or objects of his imagination, as actually present 
to his senses; e.g., *' Caesar leaves Gsiuly a^osses the Rubicon, 
and enters Italy." 



SYNTAX. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 335 

Explanation'. — "C."esar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and euteri 
[taly ;" — here the event of which the writer is speaking, occurred many 
centuries ago, but, by the use of the figure introduced, is represented as 
actually present. 

§ 383. Hyperbole is a figure that represents things as 
greater or less, better or worse than reality; e. g., ^^ I will 
make thy seed as the dust of the earth ; so that if amy man can 
number the dust of the earthy then shall thy seed, he numbered 

Re^iark:. — This figure is peculiarly graceful and pleasant, when we do 
not accurately perceive the limits of the subject we exaggerate ; because 
we most easily believe a thing is very great, when we do not know ex 
actly how great it is. 

§ 384. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the con- 
trary of what we say; e. g., "They must esteem learning 
very much^ when they see its professors used with such little 
ceremony." 

§ 385. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole 
or the w^hole for a part, a definite number for au indefinite, &c., 
'tc. ; e. g., " The roof (i. e. house) protects you." 

\emark. — This figure is nearly allied to metonymy, 

§ 386. Antithesis is the contrast or opposition between two 
different objects or qualities, that their difference may be ren- 
dered more apparent ; e. g., " He can bribe ^ but he cannot 
seduce ; he can buy^ but he cannot gain ; he can lie, but he can- 
not deceive,''^ 

Remark. — Antithesis possesses all the advantage of Climax, with which 
different things of the same kind impress the mind when in juxtaposition ; 
and it adds to these the pleasures derivable from unexpected difference 
and surprise. This figure is mostly employed in the delineation of charac- 
ters, particularly in biography, history, and satire. 

§ 387, Exclamation is a figure that is used to express strong 



886 SYNTAX.— EXERCISES. 

emotions of tlie niind ; e. g., " 0, the depth of the riches^ both 
of the wisdom and the knowledge of God /" 

§ 388. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the 
emotion of our mind, and enliven discourse by proposing 
questions; e. g., ''''Hath he said it, and will he not do it P^ 
" He that planted the ear, shall he not hear .^" 

§ 389. Paralepsis is a figure by which the speaker pretends 
to conceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; 
e. g., " I, Paul, have written it with mine own hand, I will 
repay it ; albeit, / do not say ta thee, how thou owest unto me 
even thine own self besides." 

§ 390. Apostrophe is that figure by which we turn from 
the subject of discourse to address some other person, dead or 
absent, or some object, as if that person or object were actually 
before the speaker ; e. g., " Death, where is thy sting .^" 

Remark. — In the use of this figure, care should be observed, not to 
load it with studied ornament, nor to extend it too far. 

§ 391. Climax is a figure of arrangement, in which the 
sense rises by successive steps, to what is more and more im- 
portant, or descends to what is more and more minute ; e. g., 
" There is no enjoyment of property without government ; no 
government without a magistrate ; no magistrate without obe- 
dience; and no obedience where every one acts as he pleases. ^^ 

Remark. — A writer or speaker, who, by force of argument, has estab- 
lished his principal point, may sometimes introduce this figure with ad- 
vantage at the close of his discourse. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out and describe the different Figures of Rhetoric in the following 
exercises. 

Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear. — And the 
king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the 



SYNTAX.— EXERCISES. 82T 

gate, and wept; and as he wept, thus said, my son Absa- 
lom I Would God, I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son» 
my son I — 

liberty ! sound once delightful to every Roman car ! 
O sacred privilege of Koman citizenship ! — once sacred, now 
trampled upon. 

If Cato be censured, severely but justly, for abandoning the 
cause of liberty, which he would not survive; what shall we 
say of those, who embrace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow 
tired of it when they have much to hope, and give it up when 
thev have nothiuoj to fear. — A friend exafji^e rates ; an enemv, 
his misdeeds. — 

As thy days, so shall thy strength be. — They were swifter 
than eagles, they were stronger than lions. — And it came to 
pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, " Cry aloud, 
for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he 
is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must be 
awaked.'' 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ? 
thou in:iy ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil.— 
My little finger shall be thicker than my father's loins. — Give 
us this day our daily bread. — 

**Man, like the generous vine, supported lives; 
The strength he gains, is from the embrace he gives."— 

Po-pe, 
Hast thou an arm like God, or canst thou thunder like h:m? 
— The scepter shall not depart from Judah. — No doubt tut ye 
are the people, and wisdom shall die with you. 
** I see the dagger crest of Mar 1 
I see the Moray's silver star 
AVave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, 
Tnat up the lake comes winding far 1" — ScoiU 

15 



838 SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 

" The Worm, aware of his intent, 
Harangued him thus, right eloquent." — Cowper. 

I saw their chief tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted 
fir ; his shield the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a 
cloud of mist on the hill. — Terrestrial happiness is of short con- 
tinuance ; the brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel, the 
fragrant flower is passing away in its own odor. — Hear me, O 
Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great ! — 

" Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
Clean from my hand ? No ; this my hand will rather 
The multitudinous seas incarnidine. 
Making the green one red !" — ShaJcspeare. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a Grammatical Figure ? 

How many kinds are there ? 

What is said of figures of Etymology and Syntax t 

figures of Rhetoric ? 

What is a figure of Etymology ? 

Name the most important. 

What is Apharesis ? Prosthesis ? Syncope ? 

Apocope ? Paragoge ? Diaeresis ? 

Synseresis ? Tmesis ? 

What is a figure of Syntax ? 

In what do they consist? 

Name the most important. 

What is Ellipsis ? Pleonasm ? 

Syllepsis ? Enallage ? Hyperbaton f 

What is a figure of Rhetoric ? 

Name the principal figures. 



PROSODY. 339 

What is a Metaphor ? Simile ? 
Allegory? Personification? Metonymy? 
Vision ? Synecdoche ? Irony ? Antithesis ? 
Hyperbole ? Exclamation ? Interrogation ? 
Paralepsis ? Apostrophe ? Climax ? 

PROSODY. 

§ 392. Prosody treats of the Laws of Versifi- 
cation. 

Remark. — In regard to the subjects that may be treated under the 
name of Prosody, the usage of modem grammarians is so irregular that it 
cannot be determined how many, or what things ought to be embraced 
under this head. 

§ 393. A Verse is a certain number of accented and un- 
accented syllables, arranged in regular order, and constituting 
a line of poetry. 

§ 394. Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last 
syllables of different verses. 

§ 395. Blank Verse is the name given to a kind of poetry 
written without rhyme. 

§ 396. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line or 
verse is divided. 

Remark. — The ancients divided their syllables into long and short, 
ascertaining their quantity by an exact proportion of time in sounding 
them. In English, syllables are divided into accented and unaccented. 

In the examples which follow, the accented syllables are distinguished 
by the mark of a long syllable, and the unaccented by the mark of a short 
syllable. 

§ 397. Scanning is dividing a verse into its feet, in order to 
ascertain whether the number and arrangement of syllables are 
accordinnr to the laws of versification. 



340 



PROSODY. — FEET. 



8 398. A line in which a syllable is wantinor is called Cata- 
lectic ; one which is complete, Acatalectic ; one which has a 
redundant syllable, Ilypercatalectic. 

§ 399. The feet used in English Poetry, are divided into 
eight kinds ; four of two sylllables, and four of three. 



FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES. 



1. The Iambus, 

2. The Trochee, 

3. The Spondee, 

4. The Pyrrhic, 



e. g., defended, 
e. g., noble, 
e. g., vain man. 
e. g., on a (hill). 



FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 



5. The Anapest, 

6. The Dactyl, 

7. The Amphibrach, 

8. The Tribrach, 



e. g., intercede, 
e. g., virtuous, 
e. g., contentment, 
e. g., (nu)merable. 



§ 400. The Iambus has the second syllable accented, and 
the first unaccented ; e. g.. Devote^ create, 

§ 401. The Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the 
second unaccented ; e. g., Nohle^ hamlet, 

§ 402. The Spondee consists of two accented syllables; 
e. g., Pale moon, 

§ 403. The Pyrrhic consists of two unaccented syllables ; 
e. g., " On the tall tree." 

§ 404. The Anapest has the last syllable accented, and the 
first two unaccented ; e. g., Acquiesce, misbehave, 

8 405. The Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the 
last two unaccented ; e. g., Laborer, positive. 

§ 406. The Amphibrach has the middle syllable accented, 
and the first and last unaccented ; e. g., Domestic. 



PROSODY.— IAMBIC VERSE. 341 

8 407. The Tribrach consists of three unaccented svUahles : 
e. g., N inner able. 

Remark. — The Pyrrhic, Spondee, and Tribrach occar occasionally. 
The Amphibrach is the Iambus with an additional short syllable. 

§ 408. A verse usually takes its name from the foot which 
predominates; e. g., Iambic, Trochaic, &c., (fee. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

§ 409. Iambic verses may be divided into several kinds, 
accordinor to the number of feet or syllables. 

§410. The shortest form of the Enorlish iambic consists of 
an iambus with an additional short syllable ; e. g., 

Disdain | mg. 
Complain [ ing. 
Consent | ing. 
Repent | ing. 

Remark. — ^We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with 
occasionally in stanzas. The iambus with this addition coincides with 
the amphibrach. 

§ 411. The second form of our iambic is too short to be 
continued through many lines. It consists of two iambuses ; 

What place j Is here ? 
What scSnes | appear ? 
T5 me I the rose 
N5 long I er glows. 

This style of verse sometimes takes an additional short syl* 
lable ; e. g., 

U pon I S, raoun | tSin, 
Beside I a foun I t3,iii. 



842 PEOSODY. — IAMBIC VERSE. 

§ 412. The third form consists of three iambuses; e. g., 

In pla I ces fer | or near, 
Or :^ I mo us or I obscure, 
Where whole | some is | the air, 
Or where | the most | impure. 

It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable ; e. g., 

Our hearts | no long [ er Ian | guish. 

§ 413. The fourth form is made up of four iambuses; e. g^ 

And may j at last | my wea | ry age 
Find out I the peace | ful her | mitage. 

§ 414. The fifth form of English iambic consists of five 
iambuses ; e. g., 

How loved, I how va | liied once, [ avails | thee not ; 

To whom I rela | ted or | b^ whom | begot; 

A heap | of dust | alone | remains [ of thee; 

'T Is all I thou art, | and all | the proud | shall be. 

Remark. — This is called Heroic Measure. Its simplest form consists of 
five iambuses ; but, by the admission of other feet, as trochees^ dactyls, &c., 
&c., it is capable of many varieties. 

§ 415. The sixth form of our iambic is frequently called 
the Alexandrine measure. It ponsists of six iambuses ; e. g.. 

For th6u I art but | of dust ; | be hum | ble and | be wise. 

REiiARK. — The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme, 
and, when used sparingly and with judgment, occasions an agreeable 
variety. 

§ 41G. The seventh and last form of our iambic measure, 
consists of seven iambuses. Anciently it was written in one 
line, but it is now broken into two ; the first containing four 
feet, and the second three; e.g., 



PROSODY. — IAMBIC VERSE. 84b 

When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God! 

My ris I ing soul | surveys, 
Transport | ed with | the view, [ I 'm l5st 

In won I der, love | and praise. 

Remark. — This form admits of the addition of an unacjoented syllable 
at the end of each odd line. 

§ 417. An Elegiac Stanza consists of four heroic verses 
rhyming alternately ; e. g., 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

§ 418. The Spenserian Stanza consists of eight heroic 
verses, followed by an Alexandrine. The first verse rhymes 
with the third ; the second with the fourth, fifth and seventh ; 
and the sixth with the eighth and ninth ; e. g., 

And greedy avarice by him did ride 

Upon a camel laden all with gold ; 

Two iron coffers hung on either side, 

With precious metal full as they might hold ; 

And in his lap a heap of coin he told ; 

For of his wicked pelf his god he made, 

And unto hell himself for money sold ; 

Accursed usury was all his trade ; 

And right and wrong in equal balance weighed. 

REiiARK. — ^This stanza takes its name from the poet Spenser. His 
" Fairie Queen" is written in this measure. 



844 PROSODY. — TROCHAIC VERSE. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

§ 419. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language consists 
of one trochee, and a long or accented syllable ; e. g., 

Tumult [ cease, 
Sink to I peace. 

Remark. — This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used 
on serious occasions. 

§ 420. The second English form consists of two feet, and 
is likewise so brief that it is rarely used for any serious pur- 
pose ; e. g., 

On the I mountain, 
By a I fountain. 

It seldom contains two trochees, with an additional long syl- 
lable ; e. g., 

In the I days of | old, 
Fables | plainly | told. 

§ 421. The third species consists of three trochees ; e. g., 

When our | hearts are | mourning; 

or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable ; e. g., 

Restless | mortals | toil for | naught ; 
Bliss in I vain from | earth is | sought; 
Bliss, ^ I native | of the | sky, 
Never | wanders. | Mortals, | try ; 
There you | cannot | seek in | vain ; 
For t6 I s6ek hgr | Is t6 | gain. 

§ 422. The fourth trochaic species consists of four trocliees , 
Round tts I roars the j t^mp^st ] louder. 



rROSODY. — ANAPESTIC VERSE. 845 

This form may take an additional long syllable; e. g^ 

Idle, I after | dinner, | In his | chair, 
Sat a I farmer, | ruddy, | tat, and | fair. 

§ 423. The sixth form of the English trochaic consists of 
six trochees ; e. g., 

On a I mountain, | stretched be | neath a | hoarj^ | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | viewed the | rolling ] billow. 

Remark. — This is the longest trochaic verse that seems to have been 
cultivated. Bv many its length is considered objectionable. 

ANAPESTIC VERSE. 
§ 424. The shortest Anapestio verse is a single anapest ; 

But in vain 
They complain. 

REiiARK. — This measure is often ambiguous ; for in laying an accent on 
the first as well as the third syllable, we may generally make it a trochaic. 

§ 425. The next form of our anapestic verse consists of two 
anapests ; e. g.. 

But his cour | age 'gan fail, 
For no arts I could avail. 



§ 426. The third kind consists of three anapests ; e. g^ 

I have found | out a gift | for my iUir, 

1 have found | where the wood- | pigeons breed. 

Remark. — This measure is much used in solemn and cheerful subjects. 

§ 427. The fourth kind of English anapestic verse consista 
of four anapests ; e. g., 

15* 



346 PROSODY.— DACTYLIC VERSB. 

May I gov [ ern my pas | sions with ab | s5lute sw§.y, 
And grow wi | ser and bet | ter as life | wears away. 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

§ 428. The shortest Dactylic verse consists of one dactyl: 

e. g., 

Veriiy, 

Merril)^. 

§ 429. The second form consists of two dactyls; e. g., 

Free from sa [ tiet^, 
Care and anx | let^, 
Charms in va | riet^, 
Fall to his | share. 



§ 430. The third form consists of three dactyls; e. g., 

Wearing a | way in his | youthfiilness, 
Loveliness, | beauty and | truthfulness. 

§ 431. The fourth form consists of four dactyls ; e. g., 

Bachelor's | Hall what a | quare looking | place it is ; 

Kape me from | sich all the [ days of my [ life ! 
Sure but I | think what a | burnin dis | grace it is, 

Never at j all to be | getting a | wife. 

Remark. — A dactylic verse scarcely ever ends with a dactyl. Some- 
times one long syllable is added, somotimea a trochee. Scarcely any poem 
is perfectly regular in all its feet. 



PROSODY — EXERCISES. 347 



POETIC PAUSES. 

§ 432. In addition to the usual pauses required 
to mark the sense in reading, there are other 
pauses in poetic composition, necessary to give ef- 
fect to the movement of the line. These are 
chiefly the Final pause, and the Caesural. 

Explanation. — The Final pause is necessary at the end of 
every line of poetry. It consists in the brief suspension of the 
voice, without change of tone, or pitch. The Csesural pause is 
the suspension of the voice, somewhere in the line itself. 

Note. — It is impossible to give a definite rule for the Csesural pause. 
It occurs sometimes in the middle of a Une, sometimes in the beginning, 
and often at the close. It does not occur in very short lines ; in long lines, 
it is generally near the middle. 

POETIC ANALYSIS. 

§ 433. Poetic Analysis is the process of dis- 
tinguishing, and naming poetical forms according 
to certain prescribed rules. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the examples in the following exercis'es. Tell the fe^t that 
compose the several lines, the rhymes, and the number of lines nec?»sf!ary 
to a stanza. 

" When all thy mercies, my God ! 
My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view I 'm lost 
In wonder love and praise." — Addison, 



348 PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 

" Come back ! come back ! he cried in gnef, 

Across this stormy water : 
And I '11 forgive your Highland chief, 

My daughter, oh my daughter ! 
'T was vain : the loud winds lashed the shore, 

Return, or aid preventing : — 
The waters wild went o'er his child, — 

And he was left lamenting." — CamphelL 

" A wail was heard around the bed, the death-bed of the young, 
Amidst her tears, the Funeral Chant a mournful mother sung. 
* lanthis ! dost thou sleep ? — Thou sleepst ! — but this is not 

the rest, 
The breathing, warm, and rosy calm, I 'vo pillowed on my 
breast !' " — Hemans, 

THE shepherd's HYMN". 

*^ Oh, when I rove the desert waste, and 'neath the hot sun pant, 
The Lord shall be my Shepherd then, he will not let me want; 
He Ml lead me where the pastures are of soft and shady green, 
And where the gentle waters rove, the quiet hills between. 

And when the savage shall pursue, and in his grasp I sink, 
He»will prepare the feast for me, and bring the cooling drink, 
And save me harmless from his hands, and strengthen me in 

toil, 
And bless my home and cottage lands, and crown my head 

with oil. 

With such a Shepherd to protect, to guide and guard me still, 
And bless my heart with ev'ry good, and keep from ev'ry ill, 
Surely I shall not turn aside, and scorn his kindly care. 
But keep the path he points me out, and dwell forever there." 

— W. Gilmore Sims* 



PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 849 

" If love make me forsworn, how shall I swear to love ? 
O, Drever faith could hold, if not to beauty vowM : 
Though to myself forsworn, to thee I '11 constant prove ; 
Those thoughts, to me like oaks, to thee like osiers bow'd. 
Study his bias leaves, and makes his book thine eyes, 
Where all those pleasures live, that art can comprehend. 
If knowledge be the mark, to know thee shall suffice ; 
Well learned is that tongue that well can thee commend ; 
All ignorant that soul that sees thee without wonder ; 
AVhich is to me some praise, that I thy parts admire : 
Thine eye Jove's lightning seems, thy voice his dreadful thun 

der. 
Which (not to anger bent) is music and sweet fire. 
Celestial as thou art, do not love that wrong. 
To sing the heaven's praise with such an earthly tongue." 

'•^Shakspeare. 

MY FATHER'S GRAVE. 

My father's grave, my father's grave 

Is a sacred spot to me, 
The hallowed influence it imparts 

Shall never cease to be. 
Far dearer to my heart it seems, 

Than when cold death came by, 
And touched that manly brow, and said, 

He 'neath the earth must lie. 

Five summers then had scarcely passed 

O'er my young spirit's day, 
I did not know how dear the joy 

Which death had snatched away ; 



350 PROSODY. — EXERCISi;S. 

I did not know that sorrow's hour 
Would come with fleeting years, 

Add anguish to the orphan's lot 
And bitter, bitter tears. 

I watched the group of mourning friends, 

Who stood around his bed ; 
I saw my mother when they said, 

That him she loved was dead ; 
She freely wept — the narrow stream 

Of death he then had passed — 
She wept, but oh I those tears of grief 

Were not by far the last. 

We laid him gently down to rest 

In a grove of cedars green ; 
And from the home he loved so well, 

His grave could still be seen; 
There oft at eve's most silent hour 

My mother would repair, 
And humbly " ask of Heaven its aid, 

Her heavy lot to bear." 

Sacred through life be that spot to me, 

Where he quietly doth rest, 
And may the brightest flowers of earth 

E'er bloom above his breast ; 
Above his head may happy birds 

E'er sing their sweetest lays, 
While gentle zephyrs bear to heaven 

Their lovely songs of praise. — Literary Casket. 



PROSODY. — EXERCISES, - 851 

THE TEN COMilAXDMEXTS VERSIFIED. 

" Adore no God besides me, to provoke mine eyes ; 
Nor worship me in shapes and forms that men devise ; 
With rev'rence use my name, nor turn my words to jest ; 
Observe my Sabbath well, nor dare profane my rest 
Honor and due obedience to thy parents give ; 
Nor spill the guiltless blood, nor let the guilty live ; 
Preserve thy body chaste, and flee th' unlawful bed ; 
Nor steal thy neighbor's gold, his garment, or his bread ; 
Forbear to blast his name with falsehood or deceit ; 
Nor let thy wishes loose upon his large estate." 

— Dr, Isaac Watts* 



angels' worship. 

" No sooner had th' Almighty ceas'd but all 
The multitude^^f angels w^ith a shout 
Loud as from numbers without number, sweet 
As from blest voices uttering joy, heav'n rung 
With jubilee, and loud hosannas fill'd 
Th' eternal regions : lowly reverent 
Tow'rds either throne they bow, and to the ground 
With solemn adoration down they cast 
Their crowns inwove with amaranth and gold." 

— Milton, 

THE CHRISTIAN SPIRIT. 

" Like him the soul thus, kindled from above, 
Spreads wide her arms of universal love ; 
And, still enlarg'd as she receives the grace, 
Includes creation in her close embrace. 



852 PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 

Behold a Christian ! and without the fires 
The founder of that name alone inspires, 
Though all accomplishment, all knowledge meet, 
To make the shining prodigy completCj 
Whoever boasts that name — behold a clieat !" 

Cowper. 

" MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHAKSIN." 

" The king was on his throne. 

The satraps thronged the hall ; 
A thousand bright lamps shone 

O'er that high festival. 
A thousand cups of gold. 

In Judah deemed divine — 
Jehovah's vessels, hold 

The godless heathen's wine. 

In that same bour and hall, 

The fingers of a hand 
Came forth against the wall^ 

And wrote as if on sand : 
The fingers of a man, — 

A solitary hand 
Along the letters ran. 

And traced them like a wand." 

— Lord Byron : Vision of Belshazzar. 

A SCOLDING WIFE. 

1. 

"There was a man 
Whose name was Dan, 
Who seldom spoke ; 



PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 358 

His partner sweet 
He thus did greet, 
Without a joke : 

2. 

My lovely wife, 
Thou art the life 
Of all my joys ; 
Without thee, I 
Should surely die 
For want of noise. 

3. 

O, precious one, 

Let thy tongue run 

In a sweet fret ; ^ 

And this will give 

A chance to live 

A long time yet. 

4. 
When thou dost scold 
So loud and bold, 
I 'm kept awake ; 
But if thou leave, 
It will me grieve, 
Till life forsake. 

5. 

Then said his wife, 
I '11 have no strife 
With you, sweet Dan ; 



854 PROSODY. — EXEROISBS. 

As 't is your mind, 
I '11 let you find 
I am your man. 

6. 

And fret I will, 

To keep you still 

Enjoying life ; 

So you may be 

Content with me, 

A scolding wife." — Anonymous. 



"Ye boundless realms of joy, 
Exalt your Maker's fame ; 
His praise your songs employ 
Above the starry frame : 

Your voices raise. 
Ye Cherubim,' 
And Seraphim, 
To sing his praise. 

Thou moon, that rul'st the night, 
And sun, that guid'st the day, 
Ye glitt'ring stars of light. 
To him your homage pay : 

His praise declare, 
Ye heavens above, 
And clouds that move 

In liquid air." — Psalms in meter» 



PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 855 

THE RAVEX. 
1. 

" Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and 
weary, 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tap- 

As of some one gently rappmg, rapping at my chamber door. 
' 'T is some visitor,' I muttered, ' tapping at my chamber door — 
Only this, and nothing more.' 

2. 

Ah ! distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December, 
And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the 

floor ; 
Eagerly I wished the morrow ; — vainly had I tried to borrow 
From my books surcease of sorrow — sorrow for the lost Le- 

nore — 
For the rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name Le- 

nore — 

Nameless here for evermore." — E, A. Poe. 



" * Wanderer, whither wouldst thou roam ? 
To what region far away, 
Bend thy steps to find a home, 
In the twilight of thy day V 

* In the twilight of my day, 
I am hastening to the west ; 
There my weary limbs to lay. 
Where the sun retires to rest. 



856 PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 

Far beyond the Atlantic floods, 
Stretched beneath the evening sky, 

Realms of mountains dark with woods, 
In Columbia's bosom lie. 

There, in glens and caverns rude, 

Silent since the world began, 
Dwells the virgin'Solitude, 
- Unbetrayed by faithless man : 

Where a tyrant never trod, 

Where a slave was never known, 

But where nature worships God 
In the wilderness alone. 

Thither, thither would I roam ; 

There my children may be free : 
I for them wnll find a home ; 

They shall find a grave for me.* " 

— Mon tgomery 

LINGERING COURTSHIP. 
1. 

** Never wedding, ever wooing. 
Still a lovelorn heart pursuing. 
Read you not the wrong you 're doing, 

In my cheek's pale hue ? 
All my life with sorrow strewing, 

Wed, or cease to woo. 

2. 

Rivals banish'd, bosoms plighted. 
Still our days are disunited ; 



PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 857 

Now the lamp of hope is lighted, 

Now half quencli'd appears, 
DampM, and wavering, and benighted, 

Midst my siglis and tears. 

3. 

Charms you call your dearest blessing, 
Lips that thrill at your caressing, 
Eyes a mutual soul confessing, 

Soon you '11 make them grow 
Dim, and worthless your possessing. 

Not with age, but woe !" — CampbelL 



YOUTH AND AGE CONTRASTED, 

" Crabbed age and youth 
Can not live together; 
Youth is full of pleasure. 

Age is full of care : 
Youth, like summer morn, 

Age, like winter weather ; 
Youth, like summer, brave ; 

Age, like winter, bare. 
Youth is full of sport, 
Age's breath is short ; 
Youth is nimble, age is lame ; 
Youth is hot and bold. 
Age is weak and cold ; 
Youth is wild, and age is tame." 

— Singer^ s Shakspeare^ Vol. ii. p. 594. 



858 PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 

A GOOD NAME, 
1. 

" Children, choose it, 

Don't refuse it, 
'T is a precious diadem ; 

Highly prize it, 

Don't despise it. 
You will need it when you 're men. 

2. 

Love and cherish, 

Keep and nourish, 
'T is more precious far than gold ; 

Watch and guard it, 

Don't discard it. 
You will need it when you 're old." 

— The Family Christian Almanac 



** From walk to walk, from shade to shade, 
From stream to purling stream convey'd, 
Through all the mazes of the grove. 
Through all the mingling tracks I rove, 

Turning, 

Burning, 

Changing, 

Ranging, 
Full of grief and full of love." 

— Addison's Rosamond^ Act L, Sc. 4 



PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 359 

THE ROSE. 

"The rose had been wash'd, just wash'd in a show'r, 
Which Mary to Anna convey'd ; 
The plentiful moisture encumbered the flow'r, 
And weio^h'd down its beautiful head. 

The cup was all filPd, and the leaves were all wet, 

And it seem'd to a fanciful view, 
To weep for the buds it had left, with regret. 

On the flourishing bush w^here it grew. 

I hastily seized it, unfit as it was 

For a nosegay, so dripping and drown'd, 

And, swinging it rudely, too rudely, alas I 
I snapped it, — it fell to the ground. 

And such, I exclaim'd, is the pitiless part 

Some act by the delicate mind, 
Regardless of wringing and breaking a heart 

Already to sorrow resign'd. 

This elegant rose, had I shaken it less, 

Might have bloomed with its owner awhile ; 

And the tear that is wip'd with a little address, 
May be followed perhaps by a smile." 

— CowpER : Poems, Vol. i., p. 216, 

"coronach," or funeral song. 

1. 

" He is gone on the mountain 
He is lost to the forest 
Like a summer-dried fountain 
When our need was the sorest. 



360 PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 

The font, reappearing, 

From the rain-drops shall borrow, 

But to us comes no cheering, 
To Duncan no morrow ! 

2. 

The hand of the reaper 

Takes the ears that are hoary, 
But the voice of the weeper 

Wails manhood in glory ; 
The autumn winds rushing, 

Waft the leaves that are searest. 
But our flow'r was in flushing, 

When blighting was nearest.'' 
— Walter Scott : Lady of the Lake^ Canto iii., St. 16 

TO THE KATYDID. 

" Katydid, katydid, sweetly sing, — 

Sing to thy loving mates near to thee ; 
Summer is come, and the trees are green, — 

Summer's glad season so dear to thee. 
Cheerily, cheerily, insect, sing ; 

Blithe be thy notes in the hickory : 
Every bough shall an answer ring, 

Sweeter than trumpet of victory." 

** Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 
Honor'd and bless'd be the ever-green pine ! 
Long may the tree in his banner that glances, 
Flourish, the shelter and grace of our line ! 



PEOSODT. — EXERCISES. 361 

Heaven send it liappv dew, 
Earth lend it sap anew, 
Gayly to bonrgeon, and broadly to grow. 
While ev'ry Higliland glen 
Sends our shout baek agcn, 
*Roderigh Yich Alpine Dhu, ho! ieroc !' " 

Walter Scott : Lady of the Lake^ C. ii., St. 19. 



" lochiel's warning." 

*"Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 
And coming events cast their shadows before. 
I tell thee, Culloden's dread echoes si i all ring 
With the bloodhounds that bark for thy fugitive kiug. 
Lo ! anointed by Heaven with the vials of wrath, 
Behold, where he flies on his desolate path ! 
Now, in darkness and billows he sweeps from my sight : 
Rise ! rise ! ye wild tempest?, and cover his flight ! 
'Tis finished. Their thunders are hushed on the moors : 
CuUoden is lost, and my country deplores." — Campbell. 



THE soldier's WIFE. 

" Weary way-wanderer, languid and sick at heart. 
Traveling painfully over the rugged road, 
Wild-visaged wanderer ! God help thee, wretched one ! 
Sorely thy little one drags by thee barefooted ; 
Cold is the baby that hangs at thy bending back, 
Meager, and livid, and screaming for misery." 

16 



862 PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 

THE DRUM. 

I hate that drum's discordant sound 
Parading round and round and round ; 
To thoughtless youth it pleasure yields, 
Allures from cities and from fields, 
To sell their liberty for charms 
Of tawdry lace and glittering arms ; 
And when ambition's voice commands, 
To march, and fight, and fall in foreign lands. 

I hate the drum's discordant sound. 
Parading round and round and round, 
To me it talks of ravag'd plains. 
And burning towns, and ruined swains, 
And mangled limbs and dying groans. 
And widows' tears, and orphans' moans, 
And all that misery's hand bestows. 
To fill the catalogue of human woes. 

— From Scott of Amwelh 



APPENDIX NO. I. 

GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 

Accent, [Lat. accenius from accino, accentum, ad and cano, to sing to,] 
stress of voice laid on a particular syllable. 

Accident, [Lat. accido, to fall to, to happen, ad and cado^l something tliat 
falls to, i. e. belongs to a word, but not essential to it ; as person, gen- 
der, number, case, comparison, mood, tense, &c. 

Active, [Lat. adivus, active from a(/o, to act,] denotes a form of the verb, 
the subject of which acts, or is active. In many grammars, a class of 
verbs which express action. 

Adjective [Lat. adjecius, added, joined to, from adjicio, i. e. ad, to, and 
jacio, to lay, put, &c.] the designation of a class of words. See deii- 
nition, § TS. 

Adverb, [Latin from ad, to, and verhum, a word, the verb, i. e. added or 
joined to a verb,] a class of words. § 77. 

Allegory, [Gr. dA?.7jyopia, from dXXTjyopeo), to interpret differently from 
what the words seem to imply, from d?^Aoc, and dyopscj, to speak in 
public. Th. uyopdj a forum or public place,] a figure of speech. § 379. 

Antithesis, [Gr. dvTWeGig, opposition, contrast, from awLy opposite, and 
tIOtj/iIj to place; hence to place opposite or in contrast,] a figure of 
speech. § 386. 

Apostrophe, [Gr. d7roaTpo(p?j, turning away, viz: from the subject of dis- 
course to another object, d-6, from, and arpsi^u, to turn,] a figure of 
speech. § 390. 

Apposition, [Lat. appositus, placed near or together,] a noun placed near, 
or by another, in the same construction, for the purpose of further de- 
fining it, is said to be in apposition; as " Cicero, the Orator." § 318. 

Auxiliary, [Lat. auxiliaris, helping, from auxilium, aid,] a designation of 
certain verbs. § 189. 

Case, [Lat. cosils, from cado, — casum, to fall;] hence the particular cir- 
cumstances into which a person or thing falls, or happens to be, is 



C64 APPENDIX. — GLOSSARY. 

called his, or its case. So a noun in certain circumstances, is in one 
ca.9e, in different circumstances it is in another case. § 125. 

Climax, [Gr. k?Iju,ci^, a scale or ladder,] a figure in rhetoric, by which the 
sense of the expression rises gradually in strength, from step to step. 
§ 391. 

C^LOK", [Gr. KGJ/iov, a member or limb; hence in grammar, a member or 
put of a sentence,] a mark (:) by which a member of a sentence is in- 
dicated. § 335. 

C^'MMA, [Gr. liofifin, a segment, from kotttcj^ to cut off,] a mark (,) indi- 
cating the smallest segment or division of a sentence. § 333. 

CoiiPARATiVE, [Lat. from comparo, to compare,] a form of the adjective, 
expressing a greater or less degree than the positive. § 224. 

CoN'coiiD, [Lat. concors, agreeing; concordia, agreement,] a term in syntax 
denoting the agreement of words in certain accidents. § 310. 

CoxJUGATiox, [Lat. conjugation from con^ together, and jugo^ to yoke or 
join,] arranging and joining the different parts of a verb together in 
their proper order. § 118. 

Cox JUNCTION, [Lat. conjunction from con, together, and jungo, to join,] a 
word whose use is to join together. § 257. 

Consonant, [Lat. ccnisonans, soanding together, con and sono^l a letter 
» sounded not alone, but together with a voweL § 25. 

Copula, [Lat. copula, a band or tie,] that by which the subject and pre- 
Qicate of a proposition are coupled together ; sometimes a separate 
word, as am, is, are, &c., and sometimes implied in the predicate itself, 
as I write, i. e. I am writing. § 285. 

Declension, [Lat. decUnacio, Irom declino, to decline,] declining or chang- 
ing the termination of nouns, &c., so as to form the oblique cases. 
% 137. 

Declinable, [Lat. from the same,] that may be declined or changed in 
termination. 

Dlkuesis, [Gr. (^uupealc, a division, did and alfjEo,] a mark (*•) over the 
last of two vowels, showing that they are to be divided in pronuncia- 
tion, as aerial, a-erial. § 365. 

I'lf;] I'liOXG, [Gr. dlpOoyyac, a double sound, from (hr^ twice, and <pOoyya:^^ 
.1 sound,] the union of two vowel sounds in one syllable. § 33. 

Dissyllable, [Gr. 6LaavlAaC»f], (Vcr, twice, and auA/la^;/,] a word of two 
syllables. § 46. 



APPENDIX. — GLOSSARY. 865 

Ellipsis [Gr. lAlei^pir^ omission, leaving out. rv^ and Xf^'tcj, to leave,] a 
figure by which a word or words are omitted, wliicli belong to the tuU 
grammatical construction of a sentence. See def. § ?i70. 

Etymology, [Gr. kTviioAoyla^ from krvixoXoyho^ to derive a word f:om 
its original, and thus to discover its true meaning — ■roiior, true, and 
/lt')w, to tell,] the derivation of words. Also, that part or division in 
grammar, which treats of the different classes of words, and their va- 
rious modifications. § 64. 

pEiiixiNE, [Lsi.t. feminmus, from femina, a woman,] the name of the gen- 
der of words denoting females. § 95. 

Future, [Lat. fuiariLS, about to be,] the name of a tense denoting time yet 
to come. 

Gender, [Lat. genus, Fr. genre, kind, or class ] § 92. 

Grammar, [Gr. yfja/iuarlKT], from ypd^ufiaj a letter, a writing, and that from 
7pa0cj, to write. Fr. grammairejl the science of languaq^e. § 1. 

Hyperbole, [Gr. v-epSoATJ, throwing over or beyond, hence excess, ex- 
aggeration, vTzep, over, and 6d/J,u, to throw,] a figure of speech, de- 
fined § 3 S3. 

Imperfect, [Lat. imperfedum, not completed,] a tense properly denoting 
an act, &c., completed at a certain past time. § 165. 

Indicative, [Lat. indico, — are, to declare,] a mood or form of the verb 
which simply declares. § 153. 

Infinitive, [Lat. in, negative, and finitus, limited or bounded,] a mood of 
the verb not limited by person or number. § 157. 

Interjection, [Lat. interjeciio, from inter, between, or among, and jacio, 
to throw,] a word or phrase having no grammatical connection with a 
sentence, but as it were thrown into it to express some sudden emo- 
tion of the mind. § 80. __ 

IIntransitiye, [Lat. in, negative, and ^ra/mrzvi^] not passing over. § 141. 

Irony, [Gr. elpoveia, from elpcjv, a dissembler,] a figure of speech. §384. 

Masculine, [Lat. from mav, a male,] the gender of nouns and pronouns 
which designate males. § 94. 

Metaptior, [Gr. /j-era-popd, from fieratppptj, to transfer,] a word expresstn-j 
Bimilitude without the signs of comparison, by which the property of 
one object is, as it were, transferred to another; thus when we say, 
"that man is a fox," the meaning is, *'th.^t man is like a fox ;" the 
figure transfers the leading property of t!ie/?u; to the man, ^377. 



866 APPENDIX.-- -GLOSSARY. 

Metonti^iy, [Gr. [lercdwiila^ a change of name ; from //era, denoting 
change, and ovojia^l a name, a figure bj which one word is put for an* 
other. See def. § 381. 

Metre, [Gr. from fxerpov^ a measure,] a composition, the hnes of which 
contain a certain measure of long and short syllables, arranged accord- 
ing to rule. 

MoxoSYLLABLE, [Gr. from fiovocj only, or one, and avX?,a6?j^ a syllable,] 
a word of one syllable. § 45. 

Mood or Mode, [Lat. modus, manner,] a form of the verb expressing its 
meaning in a certain manner. § 151. 

Neuter, [Lat. neuter, neither,] an epithet given to nouns which are nei- 
ther masculine nor feminine. Also, in some grammars, to verbs de- 
noting being, or a state of being. 

Nominative (case,) [Lat. nominaUvus, from nomino. to name,] the first 
case of a noun or pronoun, or that used when a person or thing is 
simply named. 

Noun, [Lat. nomen, a name ;] a word that is the name of an object, is in 
grammar called a Noun. § 73. 

Objective (case,) [Lat. ohjecUvus, from oh and jacio, to throw to, against, 
or in the way of,] the case of a noun or pronoun which denotes the 
object of a transitive verb, or preposition. § 136. 

Orthograpi-iy, [Gr. 6pdoypa(l)la, from opdo^, right, and ypcK^ri, writing,] 
writing words correctly, i. e. with the proper letters. § 8. 

Paralepsis, [Gr. 7iapa7^,enl)ic, omission, from Tcapd, and AetTrw, to leave,] 
figure of speech. § 389. 

Parenthesis, [Gr. irapevOeacr, from wapcl and hriOTjuL, to insert,] a word, 
phrase, or sentence inserted in a sentence for explanation, but not con- 
nected with it in construction, and, therefore, usually distinguished by 
a mark at the beginning and end, thus ( ). 

Paj{SE, [Derivation uncertain,] to resolve a sentence into its elements, or 
parts of speech. 

Participle, [Lat. partlcipium^ from pars, a part, and capio, to take,] a 
part of the verb which partakes of the verb and the adjective, having 
its signilication and time from the former, and declension and construc- 
tion from the latter. § 169'. 

Passive (voice,) [Lat. passivus, from patior, to suffer, or to be afTected in 
any way,] a form of the verb which indicates that its subject or nomi- 



APPENDIX. — GLOSSARY. 867 

native receives, or is afToctcd by the action expressed hy the verb. 
§ 150. 
Perfect, [Lat. perfedum^ from perfxio^ to perfect or complete,] a tense of 
the verb, denoting that the action or state expressed by it is now com- 
pleted. § 164. 

Pkuiod [Gr. TTspLodoc, a circuit, from Treptj round, and 666g, a way,] a com- 
plete sentence, one which has its construction completed, or brought 
round. 

Personification, [Lat. from persona, a person, and faclo, to make.] a fig- 
ure, by which inanimate objects are regarded as persons, or, as it were, 
made so. § 380. 

Pluperfect, [Lat. plus quam perfedum, more than perfected or completed, 
i. e. completed before a certain time now past,] the designation of a 
tense defined § 166. 

Polysyllable, [Gr. from 7ro?.v(: many, and cv?.?.a6j]j sl syllable,] a word 
of many syllables. See Syllable. 

Potential, [Lat. potentialis, belonging to power or ability, from j9oferz5, 
able,] the designation of a certain mood of the verb, defined § 155. 

Predicate, [Lat. prGedicaius, from prcedico, to assert or declare,] that part 
of a proposition which contains what is affirmed or asserted of its sub- 
ject. § 285. 

Preposition, [Lat. prcepositio, from prcepositus, placed before,] a class of 
words so called, because their position in a sentence is before the word 
governed by them. § t8. 

Pronoun, [Lat. pronomen, from pro, for, i. e. instead of, and nomen, a name 
or noun,] a word used for, or instead of a noun. § 7 6. 

Proposition, [Lat. proposiiio, from pro, before, and positus, placed,] a sim- 
ple sentence, in which a distinct idea is proposed, or set before the 
mind. § 269. 

Prosody, [Gr. npoaudta, from Trpof, with or belonging to, and uSrj, an 
ode,] anciently the doctrine of accents and quantity, &c. § 392. 

Pp,030POPEiA, [Gr. npoatdTToiroila, from ttpogcdttov, a person, and ttouo, to 
make,] the Greek term for Personification. 

Semicolon, [Lat. semi, half, and Gr. 001071,1 a point (;), denoting a division 
of a sentence less than a colon. 

Simile, [Lat. simile, like,] a figure of speech, by which one thing is com- 
pared or likened to another. § 378. 



368 APPENDIX. — GLOSSAHY. 

Solecism, [Gr. ao?iOLKL(jju6c, supposed to be derived from Solii, the name 
of a people in Cilicia, who spoke the Greek language very ungrunmat- 
ically,] a gross violation of the idiom, or syntax of a language. 

Subject, [Lat. suhjectus, from suhjicio, to place before or under, (the view,)] 
in a proposition, the person or tiling spoken o£ 

Subjunctive (moocl,) [Lat. subjunciivus, from suhjungo, to subjoin or annex 
to,] a mood of the verb never used independently, and by itself, but 
subjoined or annexed to the main or leading verb in a sentence. § 154. 

Substantive, [Lat. substantivus, from substantia^ substance,] the sanie as 
noun, viz. a class of words denoting things that have substance^ or ex- 
istence, material or immaterial. 

Superlative, [Lat. superlativus, from super, above, and latus, carried, i. e. 
carried above, viz. other things,] a form of the adjective expressing a 
degree of the quality carried above, or superior to that in any of several 
objects compared. 

Syllable, [Gr. ovAkatri, from avv, together, and Tia^uSdvo), to ta.ke,] a let- 
ter or number of letters taken together', and forming one vocal sound. 

Synecdoche, [Gr. avveKdox/], from cvv, and indexoiJ-ai, to take,] a figure 
of speech, defined § 385. 

Syntax, [Gr. ovvra^Lc, from avv, together, and rdacjo), to put in order,] 
the proper arrangement or putting together of words in a sentence. § 268. 

Tense, [Lat. temjms, time, Fr. temps,'] a form of the verb by which the time 
of an act, &c., is indicated. § 158. 

Transitive, [Lat. transitivus, from transeo, to go or pass over,] the name 
of a class of verbs, which express an act that passes over from an agent 
to an object. 

Triphtiiqng, [Gr. from rpecc, three, and (^doyyog, a sound,] the union of 
three vowels in one sound. 

Trissyllable, [Gr. rpelg, three, and avlAa&rj, a syllable,] a word of three 
syllables. 

Yerb, [Lat. verhum, a word,] the name of a class of words which, being 
the chief or most important in a sentence, were called rerbum, the 
WORD, viz. by way of eminence. § 138. 

Yerse, [Lat. versus, from verto, to turn,] a species of composition i 
which every line is measured, so as to contain a certain nuuber of 
feet, at the end of which the writer turns to a new line. 

Yowel, [Lat. vocalis, from vox, the voice,] a letter which mark=j a distmei 
and mdependent sound, without the aid of other letters. 



APPENDIX NO. II. 



ABimEYIATIONS. 



T:'c= following are tlie most common: 



A. C. 
A. B. 

A. D. 

A. M. 

E. D. 
D. D. 
e. g. 
i. e. 
T.L.D. 
L. S. 
^fessrs. 

:^i. D. 

MS. 
X. B. 

P. M. 

P. S. 
S. T. D. 



Before Christ. 
Bachelor of Arts. 
Ill the year of our Lord. 
Master of Arts. 
In the year of the world, 
.n ihe forenoon. 
Bachelor of Divinity. 
Doctor of Divinity. 
For example. 
That is. 

Doctor of Laws. 
Place of tlie seal. 
Gentlemen. 
Doctor of Medicine. 
Manuscript. 
Take notice. 
Artenioon. 
Post Master. 
Postscript. 
Doctor of Theology. 

16* 



Ante Christum. 
Artium Baccalaureus. 

Anno Domini. 

Artium Magister. 

Anno Mundi, 

Ante Meridiem. 
Bac. Divinitatis. 
Doctor Divinitatis. 
Exempli gratia. 
Id est. 

Legum Doctor. 
Locus Sigilli. 
Messieurs. 
Medicinse Doctor. 
Scriptum Manus. 
Nota Bene. 
Post Meridiem. 

Post Scriptum. 

Sanctse Theologise Doctor. 



INDEX. 



PAGT? 

GRAMMAR, GENERAL DEFINITION 5 

Theoretical Gbammar 5 

Practical Grammar 5 

Language 5 

Spoken Language 5 

Written Language 5 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, DEFINITION 7 

Divisions T 

ORTHOGRAPHY 7 

Letters 7 

Power of Letters 10 

Table of Elementary Sounds 11 

Equivalents and Correlatives 12 

Division of Letters 12 

Classes of Consonants 12 

Diphthongs 13 

Triphthongs, 13 

Combinations 14 

Double Consonants \ 14 

Aphthongs 14 

Syllables 14 

"Words 15 

Accent 15 

Derivation of Woitn-s IG 

Prefixes, Saxon Origin 16 

Prefixes, Latik Origin 17 

Prefixes, Greek Origin , 10 

Suffixes 2(i 

Synopsis of 22 

Grammatical Suffixes 28 

Capitals 23 

ORTHOEPY 24 

ETVMOL^XJY 26 



INDEX. ^ 371 



PAGR 

FouM OF "Words 26 

Classification '27 

View of tub Classes '20 

KOLINS 31 

Classes of Nouns 81 

Gknder . 34 

Person 88 

Nl\mber 40 

Casi^ 4T 

Nominative Case 43 

Possessive 49 

Objkctivr 52 

DeCLENS;I0N 01" NouNs 54 

Model for Parsing 56 

VEKB 53 

Classification of Verbs 60 

Division of Verbs 62 

Inflection 63 

VoiCF.s C3 

Moods 66 

Tenses 70 

Pakticiplks ^ 76 

Classes 7. 76 

Conjugation 80 

Foi:xi5 of the Verb SO 

Peinch'al Parts 81 

Auxiliaries 81 

FeRMATION OF THE TeNSES 106 

Model for Parsing Ill 

Irregular Verbs 118 

Defective Verbs 119 

lMrER?;oNAL Verbs 120 

ADJECTIVES 121 

Classes of 121 

DrscRTPTivE Adjectives 121 

'"oMPAPvisoN of 123 

Dkfiniti%'e Adjectives 126 

Model for Parsing 123 

P O VO I NS 131 

Clv-sses 183 

Pe!!sonal Pronouns 132 

Declension of 133 

Com5X)und 186 

Uelative Peonoun 138 



372 INDEX. 



I'AGB 

Simple Relatives 13'^ 

Interrogative Pronouns 142 

Compound Relatives 1 ;>. 

Model for Parsing 1 1' 

ADVERB II- 

Classes of Adverbs 1 ; 

Conjunctive Adverbs lo i 

Comparison of Adverbs i .> ; 

Model for Parsing 151 

PREPOSITIONS 1 > :•) 

List of 157 

Model for Parsing. 159 

CONJUNCTIONS IGl 

Classification 1 '■'.> 

Subordinate 1\-S 

Coordinate 1 '.->■] 

Model for Parsing 1 . (3 

EXCLAMATIONS luS 

Model for Parsing 1 TO 

WORDS BELONGING TO DIFFERENT CLASSES... 171 

SYNTAX • 174 

A Proposition 174 

Subject 17u 

Modified Subject 179 

Modification of Modifying Words 1 «"^2 

Predicate • 1 ^5 

Modified Predicate U'O 

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 19- 

Classification 19"} 

Clauses '97 

Connection of 2iX) 

Abridged Propositions 20o 

Analysis '2<'7 

General Directions 207 

Construction 225 

General Principles of . 2-'5 

Parts of Syntax 2- {'. 

RULES OF SYNTAX ii^T 

Rule I • ' • i 

Rule II 2-5 

Rule III 21) 

Rule IV 244 

Rule V 241 

EULB VI 252 



I 



INDEX. 873 



PAGB 

RtTT.E yil .ir)9 

El^le via 2G5 

Rule IX 2C9 

liv LK X 276 

Hulk XI 279 

RlTLK XII 2S1 

Rule XIII 285 

RuLK X I V^ 289 

R u LE X V^ 292 

MiSOKLLANKOUS KXEKCISF.S 296 

PUNCTUATION 3(5 

Comma SOT 

Skmicoi.un 816 

Colon 813 

Period 819 

Note of Interkog ation 320 

excla m ation 322 

Da8f 823 

Otiirk Characteks 325 

GRAMMATICAL FIGURES 82-3 

F •JUKES OF Ktymology 829 

Figures of Syntax 3S1 

FiauRES OF Rhetoric irr-... 333 

PROSODY 839 

Iambic Verse 841 

Trochaic 344 

Anapestic. , 345 

Dactylic 346 

POETIC PAUSES 847 

P( >i:tic analysis 347 

APPENDIX 363 

I. — Glossary of Grammatical Terms 368 

il. — Abbreviations 369 



